Chapter 15 Summary & Outline

What Are Emotions?

• The four main aspects of emotions are feelings, actions, physiological arousal, and motivational programs.

Study questions: 1 | 2

Broad Theories of Emotion Emphasize Bodily Responses

• Whereas the James-Lange theory considered emotions to be the perceptions of stimulus-induced bodily changes, the Cannon-Bard theory emphasized the integration of emotional experiences and responses in the brain. A cognitive theory of emotions argues that the key feature in emotion is the cognitive attribution of visceral arousal to specific emotions on the basis of context. Review Figure 15.1

Study questions: 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

How Many Emotions Do We Experience?

• Distinct facial expressions represent anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, contempt, and embarrassment, and these expressions are interpreted similarly across many cultures. Review Figure 15.3
• Facial expressions are controlled by distinct sets of facial muscles that, in turn, are controlled by the facial and trigeminal nerves. Review Figure 15.6

Study questions: 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19

Emotions from the Evolutionary Viewpoint

• Emotions may have evolved as coordinated motivational programs that are useful in solving specific adaptive problems.
• Emotions emerge during early development in a predictable order. By age 3, the rudiments of most of the basic emotions are evident.

Study questions: 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24

Do Distinct Brain Circuits Mediate Emotions?

• Electrical stimulation, including self-stimulation, of some brain regions is rewarding. Review Figure 15.10
• Brain lesions have revealed that particular brain circuits and interconnected regions mediate and control emotions. Relevant regions include limbic system sites described in the Papez circuit and other related regions, including the amygdala. Review Figure 15.11
• Fear is mediated by circuitry that involves the amygdala, which receives information both through a rapid direct route and via cortical sensory regions, allowing for both immediate responses and cognitive processing. Review Figure 15.12, Web Activity 15.1
• The left and right cerebral hemispheres process emotions differently. In normal people the right hemisphere is better at interpreting emotional states or stimuli.

Study questions: 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37

Neural Circuitry, Hormones, and Synaptic Transmitters Mediate Violence and Aggression

• Aggressive behavior is increased by androgens. Brain regions of the limbic system and related sites differ in their relationship to aggressive behavior: Stimulation of some regions elicits a full, species-typical pattern of aggression.
• Serotonin levels are negatively correlated with aggression, and other transmitter and hormone systems also make important contributions to the control of aggression. Review Figure 15.17

Study questions: 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47

Stress Activates Many Bodily Responses

• Assessment of stress in real-life situations shows that stress elevates the levels of several hormones (including cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) and suppresses other hormones (such as testosterone). Review Figure 15.19

Study questions: 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54

Stress and Emotions Are Related to Some Human Diseases

• Stress affects human health and influences the outcome of disease. Incidence of illness tends to be higher in people who sustain prolonged stress, although constitutional factors, as well as strategies for coping with stress, are also important.
• The nervous, endocrine, and immune systems interact reciprocally to monitor and maintain health. Review Figure 15.23
• Stress tends to decrease immune system competence, possibly to conserve energy in ancestral environments, but chronic stress increases risk of disease. Other emotional traits, such as aggressive and depressive characteristics, can increase the risk of heart attack. Review Web Activity 15.2

Study questions: 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65