You've been there before, stuck at an impasse with friends, unable to decide where to eat or which movie to see. Suggestions fly as time slips away, the gang still undecided. For folks atop the food chain, complex communication doesn't always serve us well, especially considering that sheep, fish and bees continuously make snap decisions that move their groups in unison without much fuss or muss. Scientists have long wondered how such animals do it. Now, one researcher believes he's found clues that point to an answer far simpler than anyone once thought. "You don't need [individual animals] to have to signal to one another," says Iain Couzin, a mathematical biologist and lead author of a study on decision-making in animal groups that was published in the journal Natureand highlighted in Discover Magazine. "You don't need individuals to actually recognize one another... and they can even collectively come to consensus," he explains. All the group needs, he says, is a few individuals with a directional preference. When they turn, one of two things happen: either the group follows or the stray individual rejoins the group. Couzin, who splits his time between Princeton University and University of Oxford in England, says in animals that flock, herd or school, rules are at play. To decipher them, he and his colleagues first fished for clues in tanks, where they filmed fish swimming. Then the team created computer software that automatically tracked fish as they moved, helping translate darts and turns into mathematical formulas. "We can create these virtual animals," Couzin says of his experiment. "Then what we can do is we can abstract. We can make a simplified version of reality... we then look at the basic kinds of interactions that fish use." © ScienCentral, 2000-2005.

Keyword: Animal Communication
Link ID: 7477 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News — Love appears to be a more evolved behavior than lust, according to new research that found both love and lust originate in our brains, but that the two feelings occupy different regions and pathways that only slightly overlap. The authors of the study believe that lust is quite different from love. They also say humans have evolved three distinct brain systems for mating and reproduction: the sex drive, romantic love and attachment to a long-term partner. "(Love) requires more sophisticated behaviors, reward and memory systems than other mammals, and it is present to some degree in other primates that are close to us in brain development," said Lucy Brown, lead author of the study. Brown, a neurologist at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York, and her colleagues took magnetic resonance images, or pictures of brain activity, of 17 young men and women who described themselves as being "newly and madly in love." The researchers compared the MRI data with earlier studies on male penile girth responses to photographs of women, other studies on how the brains of men and women activate when individuals view people whom they find to be attractive or unattractive, and data on both human and animal couples that have been together for a long time. The findings will be published in the July issue of the Journal of Neurophysiology. Copyright © 2005 Discovery Communications Inc.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Emotions
Link ID: 7476 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Brain shrinkage, a common symptom of ageing when people hit their 60's, appears to have no impact on an individual's capacity to think or learn, according to ANU research. The research is part of a 20-year study by the ANU Centre for Mental Health Research called PATH Through Life and suggests a revision of long-standing views on the impact of age-related brain shrinkage. Professor Helen Christensen, the Director of the Centre for Mental Health Research (CMHR), said the findings challenged traditional beliefs about the impact of ageing on the brain. "The common belief is that the brain shrinks with age and that this shrinkage is linked to poorer memory and thinking. There is also a belief that greater education, or continued, sustained intellectual activity might allow people to better accommodate the effects of brain ageing," Professor Christensen said. "Our findings do not support these beliefs. It is known that the brain shrinks over the course of a person's life, although the exact trajectory is not well understood, and there are huge individual differences. "In this study, we found that, on average, men aged 64 years have smaller brains than men aged 60. However, despite this shrinkage, cognitive functions - like memory, attention and speed of processing - are unaffected. "In the present study, we found no relationship between brain shrinkage and education level".

Keyword: Learning & Memory; Alzheimers
Link ID: 7475 - Posted: 06.11.2005

Mothers who suffer from major depression or anxiety disorders are more likely to have children with asthma and other allergy-based conditions, according to a US study. The association was only found for biological children, supporting a “shared genetic liability” theory. Ramin Mojtabai, a psychiatrist from Columbia University in New York, US, assessed the relationship between parental psychopathology and childhood allergy in more than 9000 parent-child pairs from the 1999 US National Health Interview Survey. Most of the parents were biologically related to their children, but 554 of the pairs were non-biological. The survey found that 6% of the parents had major depression, 3% had panic attacks and 3% had generalised anxiety disorder. In total, 31% of the children had allergic disorders including hay fever, eczema, wheezing, asthma and food allergies. Mojtabai’s analysis revealed that mothers who had major depression were 67% more likely to have biological children with allergic disorders, and the increased risk was 46% for mothers who had panic attacks. His study showed no statistically significant link between the psychopathology of parents and allergy in their non-biological children, or between fathers and their biological children. “The fact that adoptive parents with depression didn’t show a higher level of asthma in their children provides good evidence for the possibility of common genes for depression and panic disorder on the one hand, and allergic disorders on the other hand,” Mojtabai told New Scientist. He points out that previous studies had shown an increased risk of depression in children of parents with allergic disorders. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Depression; Neuroimmunology
Link ID: 7474 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Gwen Ericson In these brain sections of neonatal mice exposed to ethanol, mice deficient in AC1 and AC8 (right) exhibit much more neurodegeneration than normal mice, as indicated by the black material in the dying neurons. Can you blame your genes if you can't handle your liquor? A new study conducted at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis may pave the way to finding out. Researchers found that the brain's response to alcohol is partially under the influence of two genes. The genes, studied in both adult and newborn mice, were found to affect sensitivity to alcohol intoxication, interest in alcohol consumption and risk of developmental brain damage from alcohol. "Now that we understand that these genes are involved in neural processes affected by alcohol, we think they will be good candidates to look at in the human population," says Louis Muglia, M.D., Ph.D., associate professor of pediatrics, of molecular biology and pharmacology and of obstetrics and gynecology. "It will be interesting to see if there are human variants of the genes associated with either fetal alcohol syndrome or addictive behaviors in adults." To uncover the genes' effect, the research team — led by Muglia, also a pediatric endocrinologist at St. Louis Children's Hospital — inactivated the two genes in mice. In newborn mice with the genetic inactivation, ethanol (the alcohol used in beer, wine and spirits) caused significantly more neurodegeneration than it did in normal newborn mice. In adult mice with the genetic inactivation, the sedative effect of ethanol lasted up to twice as long. Further, when ethanol was freely available, adult mice with the inactivation drank much less ethanol than normal animals. The researchers report their findings in two articles appearing in the March 2 and April 20 issues of the Journal of Neuroscience. James W. Maas, predoctoral trainee, is first author on both studies.

Keyword: Drug Abuse; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 7473 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By NICHOLAS WADE Some male prairie voles are devoted fathers and faithful partners, while others are less satisfactory on both counts. The spectrum of behavior is shaped by a genetic mechanism that allows for quick evolutionary changes, two researchers from Emory University report in today's issue of Science. The mechanism depends on a highly variable section of DNA involved in controlling a gene. The Emory researchers who found it, Elizabeth A. D. Hammock and Larry J. Young, say they have detected the same mechanism embedded in the sequence of human DNA but do not yet know how it may influence people's behavior. Voles, not to be confused with the burrowing, hill-making mole, are mouselike rodents with darker coats and fatter tails. The control section of their DNA expands and contracts in the course of evolution so that members of a wild population of voles, the Emory researchers have found, will carry sections of many different lengths. Male voles with a long version of the control section are monogamous and devoted to their pups, whereas those with shorter versions are less so. People have the same variability in their DNA, with a control section that comes in at least 17 lengths detected so far, Dr. Young said. Copyright 2005 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 7472 - Posted: 06.10.2005

La Jolla, Calif.- The mysterious, highly infectious prions, which cause the severe destruction of the brain that characterizes "mad cow disease" and several human brain degenerative disorders, can be rendered harmless in the laboratory by a slight alternation of the three-dimensional conformation or shape of the prion protein's structure. The discovery, which opens up new directions for researchers studying the currently untreatable prion diseases in humans and animals, is reported in this week's Nature by Salk Institute scientist Roland Riek and colleagues, along with collaborators in France and Switzerland. Riek and his colleagues used a fungus as a model system because its prions are easier to isolate and work with than are the prions from humans and other mammals. "It's a fantastic system to study the structural components of prions and measure infectivity," Riek said. "This discovery is very interesting from a basic scientific point of view because it shows that a specific conformation of the prion protein is the infectious entity, and also that we can easily destroy the prion's infectivity by altering its shape," said Riek. "We now need to find out if this is also the case in mammalian prions."

Keyword: Prions
Link ID: 7471 - Posted: 06.10.2005

A discovery that may someday help to explain human social behavior and disorders such as autism has been made in a species of pudgy rodents by researchers funded, in part, by the National Institute’s of Health’s (NIH) National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and National Center for Research Resources (NCRR). The researchers traced social behavior traits, such as monogamy, to seeming glitches in DNA that determines when and where a gene turns on. The length of these repeating sequences — once dismissed as mere junk DNA — in the gene that codes for a key hormone receptor determined male-female relations and parenting behaviors in a species of voles. Drs. Larry Young and Elizabeth Hammock, Emory University, report on their findings in the mouse-like animals native to the American Midwest in the June 10, 2005 Science. The discovery is the latest in a two decades-old scientific quest for the neural basis of familial behavior begun at the NIMH Intramural Research Program in the mid l980s by now NIMH director Thomas Insel, M.D. By l993, his team had discovered that the distribution of brain receptors that bind to the hormone vasopressin differed dramatically between monogamous and polygamous vole species and accounted for their divergent lifestyles. Yet, how such behavioral differences could have evolved in animals that otherwise appear almost identical remained a mystery.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 7470 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Alison Drain — Video games, which reveal disconnects between a set of young television addicts and their elders, could bridge a generation gap. While Mortal Combat, Grand Theft Auto, or Halo may be foreign to aging generations, a new study out of Washington University in St. Louis and the University of Toronto suggests that video games like these promote a kind of mental "expertise" that could prove to be useful in the non-virtual world - potentially in rehabilitation and for the elderly. Alan Castel, Ph.D., Washington University post doctorate fellow in psychology in Arts & Sciences, conducted a study to examine how video games can lead to a degree of expertise in certain domains, and how that might influence video game players' visual search patterns. Castel's research compares twenty college-aged, expert video game players, those who log more than ten — and upwards of 20 — hours of game time per week, to non-players, to determine how video game specialization influences human visual attention capacity and our environmental stimuli search patterns. Castel found, in short, that gamers showed a 20% reduction in response times as opposed to non-gamers, averaging reactions 100 milliseconds speedier than non-players'.

Keyword: Intelligence
Link ID: 7469 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Howard Hughes Medical Institute researchers have provided the first detailed look at the core structure of the abnormal protein filaments found in at least 20 devastating diseases, ranging from Alzheimer's to Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, the human version of “mad cow” disease. The images reveal that the filaments form a short zipper that is closed and stuck. To get a more realistic picture of what the fibrils look like, however, one should picture a towering stack of zippers, each of which is tightly bonded to the one below. The first atomic details of the interconnected protein segments were reported in the June 9, 2005, issue of Nature. In each disease, a different protein transforms into the misfolded threads known as amyloid fibrils. Scientists believe that the various proteins share a common underlying feature that explains how they assemble into the persistent fibrils that can accumulate in the brain and other tissues. "To do something about these diseases, you have be able to see the parts at the atomic level," said senior author David Eisenberg, a Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) investigator at the University of California, Los Angeles. "Only then can you design an intervention." The common trait of these different proteins was discovered more than thirty years ago. But even the most advanced technologies have been unable to capture anything more than a fuzzy image. © 2005 Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Keyword: Alzheimers
Link ID: 7468 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By ANDREW POLLACK A federal judge has denied a request by two people with Parkinson's disease that he order Amgen to continue giving them a drug they used in a clinical trial that the company discontinued. The lawsuit raised questions about the rights of patients in clinical trials. The patients accused Amgen, the world's largest biotechnology company, of treating them as "mere guinea pigs" and argued that the company had a legal and moral obligation to continue the treatment, which they said had eased their symptoms. But Judge P. Kevin Castel of United States District Court in Manhattan ruled Monday that Amgen was under no contractual obligation to continue supplying the drug. He said that the informed consent forms signed by the patients before participating in the trial explicitly acknowledged Amgen's right to terminate it. While it is not illogical for participants in a trial to assume the company would continue testing the drug, Judge Castel wrote in a 21-page opinion, "that is a far cry from establishing a contract by which Amgen bargained away the freedom to terminate the research trials in its sole discretion." Alan Milstein, the lawyer representing the patients, said he was considering options, including an appeal. Last September, Amgen stopped giving the drug, called glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, or G.D.N.F., to all clinical trial participants, about four dozen people. The company said the drug had not proved meaningfully better than a placebo and might even be dangerous. Copyright 2005 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Parkinsons; Trophic Factors
Link ID: 7467 - Posted: 06.08.2005

University of Queensland researchers have teamed up with Tibetan Buddhist monks to uncover clues to how meditation can affect perception. Olivia Carter and Professor Jack Pettigrew from UQ's Vision, Touch and Hearing Research Centre, as well as colleagues from the University of California Berkeley, found evidence that skills developed by the monks during meditation can strongly influence attention and consciousness. With the support of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, 76 monks participated in the study, which was carried out at or near their mountain retreats in the Himalaya, Zanskar and Ladakhi Ranges of India. Ms Carter said the study was aimed at gaining an insight into how visual perception is regulated within the brain. She said the research investigated the extent that certain types of trained meditative practice can influence the conscious experience of visual perceptual rivalry, which is what happens when someone has two different images shown to each eye, or is shown an ambiguous image such as a picture that can look like two faces or a vase. "Typically this results in a switching between the two images, but in the case of one type of meditation, the monks reported a perceptual dominance of one of the images," Ms Carter said.

Keyword: Attention; Vision
Link ID: 7466 - Posted: 06.08.2005

(Portland, Ore.)—Usually when you give up something, there’s a price to pay. Not so in the case of the Australian Bynoe’s gecko. This line of all-female geckos doesn’t need sex or a male to reproduce and, contrary to expectations, these “Wonder Woman” geckos can run farther and faster than their sexually reproducing relatives. The research findings are published in the journal Physiological and Biochemical Zoology (Vol. 78, 3, May/June 2005) by Michael Kearney, Rebecca Wahl and Kellar Autumn. “This is extraordinary,” said Autumn, associate professor of biology at Lewis & Clark College and member of the research team. “The traditional theory is that when a species gives up sex and reproduces through cloning, the offspring will have reduced performance.” Parthenogenetic creatures are all-female species. Their “clonal” way of reproducing means that a mother’s babies are genetically identical to her. A further twist to the story is that many parthenogentic species, including the Bynoe’s gecko, evolved when two species crossed, or hybridized, said Michael Kearney. He is a postdoctoral research fellow in the Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research at the University of Melbourne in Australia. Kearney’s interest in geckos started during his undergraduate years in Australia. As a Fulbright Graduate Fellow, Kearney studied with Autumn at Lewis & Clark College. “This makes them a bit like mules, which are a cross between a horse and a donkey,” said Kearney. “Mules are very robust animals, but they cannot reproduce.” Kearney’s research suggested that the hybrid forms of Bynoe’s geckos could not only reproduce through parthenogenesis, but were “super tough,” just like a mule. Copyright © Lewis & Clark College 2005

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Evolution
Link ID: 7465 - Posted: 06.24.2010

CINCINNATI -- A new Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center study links regions of two chromosomes to susceptibility for a type of autism characterized by regression in development. Developmental regression can include the loss of previously acquired language, social skills or both. Moreover, the study is the first to identify involvement of chromosome 21 in this type of autism. This may explain the increased prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) among children with Down syndrome, who have an extra copy of chromosome 21 and are 10 times more likely to have an ASD than the general population. The findings represent "the important first step in identifying genetic variants that may contribute to susceptibility to this specific type of ASD," says Cindy Molloy, M.D., lead author of the study. Dr. Molloy is a physician at Cincinnati Children's in the Center for Epidemiology and Biostatistics and in the division of developmental disabilities. The study is published in the online edition of the journal Molecular Psychiatry. Dr. Molloy and colleagues in the division of human genetics examined a national database and DNA bank of hundreds of families with ASD. They identified 32 pairs of siblings, one trio of siblings and one pair of cousins who showed definite evidence of regression at the age of approximately 18 to 24 months. They confirmed previous evidence for linkage with ASD on chromosome 7 and found new evidence for susceptibility on chromosome 21 in this subset of ASD families.

Keyword: Autism
Link ID: 7464 - Posted: 06.08.2005

Michael Hopkin It might sound unlikely, but men looking at explicit pictures of two naked men with a naked woman have been shown to produce higher-quality sperm than those watching pornographic images featuring women only. Although this seems to go against common perceptions about male sexual preferences, it is consistent with the theory of sperm competition, says study leader Leigh Simmons of the University of Western Australia, Perth. This states that males (of many species, including humans) should produce better sperm when faced with a female who has other mates, because this stimulates them to boost their chance of procreation. The findings may help fertility clinics to obtain the best possible sperm samples from their clients, by providing specialized images of intercourse for men to view. This might help prospective fathers maximize their fertility, Simmons suggests. Though he adds that some women may disapprove of their partner viewing such material. The report, published online by Biology Letters1, also suggests that men who keep their mobile telephone near to their testes may be harming the quality of their sperm. Before viewing the explicit photos, volunteers in the study were asked to complete a lifestyle questionnaire including details of their alcohol intake, smoking and telephone use. Those who kept a phone in a pocket or clipped to their belt seemed to show lower levels of sperm motility, the researchers note. But experts caution that it is hard to interpret this information, because the study was not designed to look at this effect. ©2005 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Evolution
Link ID: 7463 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Is this the ultimate excuse for poor performance in bed? “Sorry, darling,” the man says, just before falling asleep. “It’s your genes.” According to a study published this week, up to 45% of the differences between women in their ability to reach orgasm can be explained by their genes. Despite decades of surveys and conjecture about the role of culture, upbringing and biology in female sexual function, from Freud in 1905 to the Hite report in 1976, this is the first study of the role of a woman’s genes. Its findings suggest there is an underlying biological basis to a woman’s ability to achieve orgasm. Whether that basis is anatomical, physiological or psychological remains uncertain, says Tim Spector of the twin research unit at St Thomas’ Hospital in London, UK, who carried out the study. “But it is saying that it is not purely cultural, or due to peer pressure, or to differences in upbringing or religion,” he says. “There are wide differences between women and a lot of these differences are due to genes.” Spector’s team asked more than 6000 female twins to fill out a confidential questionnaire about how often they achieved orgasm during intercourse and masturbation. They received 4037 complete replies, which included answers from 683 pairs of non-identical twins and 714 pairs of identical twins. The women’s ages ranged from 19 to 83, and about 3% were lesbian or bisexual. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 7462 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Poor nutrition in the womb may remodel the brain circuitry of newborn babies and predispose them to become obese in later life, research in mice suggests. The findings may help doctors to prevent the onset of obesity in susceptible infants who are born undernourished, say the researchers. “Nutritional restriction during fetal life is not uncommon even in modern Western society,” says Norimasa Sagawa at Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan, one of the researchers. “The important point is that after such nutritional stress during fetal life those (children) are exposed to high-calorie and high-fat diet during their later life.” A combination that may be a recipe for obesity. Previous research has found that babies born to malnourished mothers are more likely to develop heart disease and diabetes in later life. These small babies have a phase of “catch-up” growth, where within their first months they grow more quickly than their bigger born counterparts, eventually reaching equal size. During catch-up, they also show elevated levels of the appetite-regulating hormone leptin. This is secreted by fat cells and acts to diminish appetite when reserves are high. These children may have been pre-programmed with a “thrifty phenotype”, a term coined by David Barker at the University of Southampton, UK, and his colleagues. They reasoned that fetuses who sense food scarcity in the womb set their bodies to store more fat, more efficiently. But it was unknown exactly how this programming worked. To investigate the mechanism behind this, a team led by Shigeo Yura, also at Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, gave pregnant mice different feeding regimes – normal and underfed. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 7461 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By JANE E. BRODY When a celebrity writes about experiencing a health problem, especially an emotional disorder that severely disrupts feelings of self-confidence and competence, it is bound to receive considerable public attention. And so, I hope that Brooke Shields's new book "Down Came the Rain" (Hyperion, $23.95) about her recent battle with a serious postpartum depression will call attention to this common but underdiagnosed and undertreated problem. Ten to 20 percent of women experience a serious depression within weeks or months of giving birth, but fewer than one woman in five is treated for it. Yet failure to get needed help can prolong the misery, resulting in a battle with depression that can last a year or more and create havoc in a household. Ms. Shields, too, let far too many weeks pass - weeks that found her hiding in her bed, barely able to care for herself or the child she struggled for years to bear - before she finally sought professional help. Here's her message to women who find themselves surprised and overwhelmed by a postpartum mood disorder: "Do not waste time! Get help right away. Postpartum depression is extremely treatable, and there are many ways to cope with and get through it. And remember: postpartum depression is beyond your control. Having it does not mean you are not a good mother or that you are crazy. The most important thing is that you don't wait for it to pass." Copyright 2005 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Depression
Link ID: 7460 - Posted: 06.07.2005

Although morphine is well known as a highly effective analgesic, its clinical utility is severely limited by the development of drug tolerance, the requirement for increasing doses to maintain analgesic effect, and the development of physical dependence. In the June 7 issue of Current Biology, researchers report a new study showing that the administration of a drug cocktail containing morphine along with small doses of two versions of methadone, a related opioid drug, significantly reduced both tolerance and dependence in test animals. The work is reported by Li He and Jennifer Whistler of the Ernest Gallo Clinic and Research Center and the University of California, San Francisco. The analgesic effects of morphine arise through the interaction of the drug with a specialized protein on the surface of cells, the mu opioid peptide receptor, or "MOP" receptor. MOP receptors are also activated by other opioid drugs and by endogenous opioids, such as endorphins. However, morphine is unique in that unlike other opioids, it does not cause the MOP receptor to be internalized into the cell's interior after activation. It is thought that the activated receptor's persistence at the cell surface leads to a compensatory overactivation of a particular signaling pathway in the cell--a signaling imbalance that is a hallmark of opiate tolerance and dependence. This suggests that the promotion of MOP-receptor internalization might prevent such cellular signaling imbalances, and indeed past work from Whistler indicated that mutant versions of the receptor that are more readily internalized were associated with reduced levels of morphine tolerance in mice.

Keyword: Pain & Touch; Drug Abuse
Link ID: 7459 - Posted: 06.07.2005

MAIRI MACLEOD WOULD YOU feel happier if you could get away with spending less time at work? Most of us might assume the answer is yes - but faced with the reality of this, would we actually achieve greater happiness? Consider reactions to the Working Time Directive, a piece of EU legislation which states that a person should not work more than 48 hours per week. Last month, the European Parliament voted to scrap the opt-out clause, so that all must abide by the directive. Presumably well-intentioned, at first glance this seems like a good thing - not having to spend all our time slogging in the office is bound to make us happier, isn't it? But there has been a volley of protest, not just from businesses but also from individuals who want the right to work more. We all want to be happy, but seem reluctant to relax and spend time doing things for enjoyment alone. So what's going on? In his new book Happiness, the Science Behind Your Smile, evolutionary psychologist Daniel Nettle of Newcastle University argues that we can explain this conundrum by looking at it in terms of how the pursuit of happiness helps human beings to survive and reproduce. "If you ask people what they want from life and what they like, you get two entirely different sets of answers," says Nettle. "People may like to take a walk in the park, play with their kids and so on, but what they want might be to get that promotion, earn more money and buy a bigger house in the suburbs." But, as too many of us will admit, once we have attained these things, we don't get happier: we just want more." ©2005 Scotsman.com

Keyword: Evolution; Emotions
Link ID: 7458 - Posted: 06.24.2010