Possessive cockerels use fake sex to keep their hens faithful. By merely mounting females - without bothering to waste precious sperm - cocks ensure their partners will not go looking for male competitors to fertilise them, a new study suggests. The finding may explain why males of many species - from insects to mammals - engage in seemingly meaningless sperm-free sex. “Copulations that appear to be successful, but with no semen transferred, are almost ubiquitous,” says Tommaso Pizzari at the University of Oxford, UK, co-author of the study. “It suggests that this behaviour may be rather more than an accident or a by-product of males running out of sperm.” While sperm was always thought of as a cheaper investment than eggs, in the past few years, researchers have begun to realise that sperm also carries a hefty biological price tag. In 2003, Pizzari and his colleagues showed that male chickens allocated their precious seed according to the likelihood of fathering children. Unfamiliar females always received a fulsome dose, while hens with which the cock had already mated several times ended up receiving little more than ruffled feathers. The research team decided to test the consequences of sperm-free mountings on a female’s propensity for promiscuity. Using cleverly designed harnesses, which prevent cocks from depositing semen into a females’ reproductive tract, the team was able to create two distinct groups - hens that had been mounted, but received no sperm, and hens who had successful, sperm-transferring copulations. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Evolution
Link ID: 7622 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Scientists have uncovered clues about what happens in the brain to make some people "over-friendly". US National Institute of Mental Health experts looked at differences in the brains of people with an abnormality which makes them highly sociable. Researchers used scans to identify areas which failed to work properly when they saw frightening faces. In Nature Neuroscience, they say this could give clues for understanding social disorders in others. People with the genetic condition Williams Syndrome lack around 21 genes on chromosome seven. Their lack of fear means they will impulsively engage in social situations, even with strangers. But they often have heightened anxiety about non-human fears, such as spiders or heights. The condition affects around one in 25,000 people. The US team focused on the amygdala, an almond-shaped structure deep in the brain which has been thought to help regulate social behaviour. fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scans was used to study the brains of 13 healthy volunteers and 13 with Williams Syndrome. All were shown pictures of angry or scary faces. In healthy brains, seeing such images would provoke a strong response in the amygdala. However the fMRI scans showed far less activity in those of people with Williams Syndrome. Study participants were then shown pictures of threatening scenes, such as plane crashes, which did not have any people or faces in them. The amygdala response was seen to be abnormally increased in participants with Williams Syndrome. (C)BBC

Keyword: Language; Emotions
Link ID: 7621 - Posted: 07.11.2005

Training the Brain Cognitive therapy as an alternative to ADHD drugs By Gunjan Sinha To medicate or not? Millions of parents must decide when their child is diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)--a decision made tougher by controversy. Studies increasingly show that while medication may calm a child's behavior, it does not improve grades, peer relationships or defiant behavior over the long term. Consequently, researchers have focused attention on the disorder's neurobiology. Recent studies support the notion that many children with ADHD have cognitive deficits, specifically in working memory--the ability to hold in mind information that guides behavior. The cognitive problem manifests behaviorally as inattention and contributes to poor academic performance. Such research not only questions the value of medicating ADHD children, it also is redefining the disorder and leading to more meaningful treatment that includes cognitive training. "This is really a shift in our understanding of this disorder from behavioral to biological," states Rosemary Tannock, professor of psychiatry at the University of Toronto. Tannock has shown that although stimulant medication improves working memory, the effect is small, she says, "suggesting that medication isn't going to be sufficient." So she and others, such as Susan Gathercole of the University of Durham in England, now work with schools to introduce teaching methods that train working memory. In fact, working-memory deficits may underlie several disabilities, not just ADHD, highlighting the heterogeneity of the disorder. "Working memory is a bottleneck for everyday functioning independent of what category you fit into," comments Torkel Klingberg, a neuroscientist at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm. Based on Klingberg's research, Karolinska founded Cogmed--a biotech company that has developed a software program to train working memory. © 1996-2005 Scientific American, Inc

Keyword: ADHD
Link ID: 7620 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By JR Minkel Philosopher of science David Buller has a bone to pick with evolutionary psychology, the idea that some important human behaviors are best explained as evolutionary adaptations to the struggles we faced tens to hundreds of thousands of years ago as hunter-gatherers. In his new book, Adapting Minds, the Northern Illinois University professor considers--and finds lacking--the evidence for some of the most publicized conclusions of evolutionary psychologists: Men innately prefer to mate with young, nubile women, while women have evolved to seek high status men; men are wired to have a strong jealous reaction to sexual infidelity, while women react to emotional infidelity; and parents are more likely to abuse stepchildren than their genetically related children. Buller doesn't reject evolutionary studies of the mind per se. Rather, he contends that "Evolutionary Psychology," a set of assumptions about the nature and evolution of the human mind, has largely crowded out the possibility of a more pluralistic "evolutionary psychology." Writer JR Minkel recently spoke to Buller to get a bead on his argument. An abridged and edited transcript of their conversation follows. JR Minkel: What was your initial reaction to the conclusions of Evolutionary Psychology, and when did you first start having doubts about them? David Buller: When I first started reading it, it just all seemed intuitively right to me. But as I followed the citation trail and actually started looking at the primary studies that were cited in support of those conclusions--and thinking seriously about the methods that had been employed in the studies, the presuppositions behind them, and whether there were alternative evolutionary hypotheses for the things studied that were not in fact being ruled out by the experiments--I began to find that it wasn't all that convincing. © 1996-2005 Scientific American, Inc.

Keyword: Evolution
Link ID: 7619 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Dean Keith Simonton, Ph.D. The idea that creativity and psychopathology are somehow linked goes way back to antiquity--to the time of Aristotle. Centuries later, this belief was developed and expanded by various psychiatrists, psychoanalysts and psychologists. For instance, Cesare Lombroso, M.D., argued toward the end of the 19th century that genius and madness were closely connected manifestations of an underlying degenerative neurological disorder. To be sure, this idea has not gone without challenge. On the contrary, humanistic psychologists were inclined to associate creativity with mental health. Nevertheless, the prevailing view appears to be that psychopathology and creativity are positively associated. But what is the scientific evidence supporting this hypothesized association? And what does this evidence suggest is the basis for the relationship? Scientific data addressing this issue come from three main sources: historiometric, psychiatric and psychometric. Although each source has distinct methodological problems, the findings all converge on the same general conclusions. Historiometric research. In this approach, historical data are subjected to objective and quantitative analyses. In particular, the biographies of eminent creators are systematically analyzed to discern the presence of symptoms associated with various psychopathological syndromes. Such historiometric inquiries lead to four conclusions. © 2005 Psychiatric Times. All rights reserved.

Keyword: Schizophrenia; Intelligence
Link ID: 7618 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Nasal surgery might help alleviate severe migraine headaches for some patients, research suggests. It seems some migraines are triggered - or exacerbated - by surfaces within the sinuses or nasal cavities pressing against each other. The brain is confused into interpreting the stimulation as a headache. New Jersey researchers found endoscopic nasal surgery on 21 migraine sufferers halved the number of days they had headaches and they were less severe. The study, by Christ Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey, is published in the journal Cephalagia. It is thought that when surfaces in the nasal tissues touch they stimulate one of the main nerves in the face called the trigeminal nerve. This may confuse the brain into interpreting the stimulation as a headache - a phenomenon known as referred pain. The researchers evaluated 21 patients who had severe migraines that had not responded to conventional treatment. Brain scans revealed that all the patients had intranasal contact points. When these contact points were treated with an anaesthetic lotion, all the patients experienced a temporary improvement in their symptoms. They then underwent endoscopic surgery to correct the contact areas. In the months after the surgery, the average number of days with headache experienced by the group fell from 18 to eight days per month. The average headache severity, measured on a 10-point scale, dropped from 7.8 to 5.6. (C)BBC

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 7617 - Posted: 07.09.2005

WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. - A trail of feathers led a team of Purdue University scientists to confirm that eagles from central Asia are quite possibly the most faithful of birds. By performing DNA analysis on the feathers left behind at nesting sites, the researchers were able to identify individual Eastern imperial eagles in a nature reserve in Kazakhstan. Their analysis showed that not one adult strayed from its mate - a degree of fidelity highly unusual among birds, the vast majority of which mate with and raise offspring from multiple partners. Not only is this study the first to confirm monogamy in eagles, more importantly, it also is the first to rely on feathers collected "noninvasively," or without trapping and handling, to provide a source of DNA to determine relationships among individuals and determine various population parameters. "That we were able to use feathers we collected noninvasively as a source of DNA is the number one thing scientists will be interested in," said Andrew DeWoody, associate professor of genetics and senior author of the study, which was published online Friday (July 1) in the journal Molecular Ecology.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 7616 - Posted: 07.09.2005

What if you and your baby were hiding with a group of your peers from war-time enemies and the baby's crying threatened to give you all away? Would you be willing to do anything, including smothering your child in order to save the rest of the group? Philosophers have been contemplating questions like that for decades. No doubt, a moral case can be made for either choice. Now, researchers are looking not at our souls, but at our brains to see what happens neurologically as we wrestle with moral dilemmas. "There doesn't seem to be any single moral faculty or moral center in the brain," says Joshua Greene, a neuroscientist at Princeton University, "rather, we have different responses and sometimes they all work together and sometimes they compete with each other and that's what makes a moral decision difficult, when there are different kinds of processes in the brain that are sort of duking it out." To put himself ringside, Greene took MRI brain images from 41 volunteers as they responded to 60 questions, a mix raising no moral choice, like what to cook for dinner, and questions specifically designed to force them to make agonizing choices, like whether to smother their baby to save more lives. "Sometimes, I wanted a dilemma where everyone would say it was wrong, and other cases where everyone would say that it was right," he explains of the study design. "Sometimes, I wanted a case…where some people would say that it is right and some people would say that it was wrong. I think those are really the most interesting cases because by comparing the data from people who go one way with people who go another way we can start to see what competing moral values look like in the brain." © ScienCentral, 2000-2005.

Keyword: Miscellaneous
Link ID: 7615 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Christen Brownlee Although identical twins have identical DNA, they often harbor clear-cut differences: slight variations in appearance or stark distinctions in disease susceptibility, for example. Scientists have suggested that the interplay between nature and nurture could explain such differences, but the mechanism has been poorly understood. A new study suggests that as identical twins go through life, environmental influences differently affect which genes are turned on and which are switched off. Called epigenetic modification, such gene activation or silencing typically stems from two types of chemical groups that latch on to chromosomes as charms attach to a bracelet, says Manel Esteller of the Spanish National Cancer Centre in Madrid. Methyl groups that clip on to DNA tend to turn genes off. On the other hand, acetyl groups attaching to histones, the chemical core of chromosomes, usually turn genes on. Suspecting that such epigenetic differences might account for variations between identical twins, Esteller and his team focused on the two chemical changes. The scientists recruited 80 pairs of identical twins, ranging in age from 3 to 74, from Spain, Denmark, and the United Kingdom. Copyright ©2005 Science Service.

Keyword: Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 7614 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Bruce Bower As a college student in 1964, David J. Hufford met the dreaded Night Crusher. Exhausted from a bout of mononucleosis and studying for finals, Hufford retreated one December day to his rented, off-campus room and fell into a deep sleep. An hour later, he awoke with a start to the sound of the bedroom door creaking open—the same door he had locked and bolted before going to bed. Hufford then heard footsteps moving toward his bed and felt an evil presence. Terror gripped the young man, who couldn't move a muscle, his eyes plastered open in fright. Without warning, the malevolent entity, whatever it was, jumped onto Hufford's chest. An oppressive weight compressed his rib cage. Breathing became difficult, and Hufford felt a pair of hands encircle his neck and start to squeeze. "I thought I was going to die," he says. At that point, the lock on Hufford's muscles gave way. He bolted up and sprinted several blocks to take shelter in the student union. "It was very puzzling," he recalls with a strained chuckle, "but I told nobody about what happened." Hufford's perspective on his strange encounter was transformed in 1971. He was at that time a young anthropologist studying folklore in Newfoundland, and he heard from some of the region's inhabitants about their eerily similar nighttime encounters. Locals called the threatening entity the "old hag." Most cases unfold as follows: A person wakes up paralyzed and perceives an evil presence. A hag or witch then climbs on top of the petrified victim, creating a crushing sensation on his or her chest. Copyright ©2005 Science Service.

Keyword: Sleep
Link ID: 7613 - Posted: 06.24.2010

The key to preventing postpartum depression may be individual support provided after birth by a health professional and tailored to a mother's needs, says a University of Toronto researcher. "Health professionals want to identify pregnant women who may be at risk for postpartum depression in hopes of initiating preventive strategies," says U of T nursing professor Cindy-Lee Dennis. "But in my review of studies from around the world, I found no preventive effect of any strategy initiated before birth, including prenatal classes specifically targeting postpartum depression. It's not because the interventions are theoretically weak, but it's because compliance is low – women are busy and don't attend the classes." After sifting through hundreds of studies, Dennis conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 randomized control trials focusing on prevention of postpartum depression. The trials involved 7,697 women. Her study is published in the July 2 issue of the British Medical Journal. The evidence suggests postpartum depression may be preventable, says Dennis. In analyzing the prevention strategies used, Dennis found an overall 19 per cent reduction in postpartum depression. Individual assessment and intensive support provided by a health professional to at-risk women after they give birth was the most successful approach to preventing postpartum depression; group-based strategies weren't as effective. Risk factors for postpartum depression include past psychiatric history, a significant number of life stressors and lack of support.

Keyword: Depression
Link ID: 7612 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Waltham, Mass. – A Brandeis University researcher has shown that an African grey parrot with a walnut-sized brain understands a numerical concept akin to zero – an abstract notion that humans don't typically understand until age three or four, and that can significantly challenge learning-disabled children Strikingly, Alex, the 28-year-old parrot who lives in a Brandeis lab run by comparative psychologist and cognitive scientist Dr. Irene Pepperberg, spontaneously and correctly used the label "none" during a testing session of his counting skills to describe an absence of a numerical quantity on a tray. This discovery prompted a series of trials in which Alex consistently demonstrated the ability to identify zero quantity by saying the label "none." Dr. Pepperberg's research findings, published in the current issue of The Journal of Comparative Psychology, add to a growing body of scientific evidence that the avian brain, though physically and organizationally somewhat different from the mammalian cortex, is capable of higher cognitive processing than previously thought. Chimpanzees and possibly squirrel monkeys show some understanding of the concept of zero, but Alex is the first bird to demonstrate an understanding of the absence of a numerical set, Dr. Pepperberg noted. "It is doubtful that Alex's achievement, or those of some other animals such as chimps, can be completely trained; rather, it seems likely that these skills are based on simpler cognitive abilities they need for survival, such as recognition of more versus less," explained Dr. Pepperberg.

Keyword: Intelligence; Evolution
Link ID: 7611 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By David Kohn Blanche Cardarelli is a very friendly person. Almost every day, she spends at least a few hours hanging out with one group of people or another. She belongs to seven social clubs and, by her count, has dozens of friends. "I like people. I like being around people," says Cardarelli, a former homemaker who lives in the Middleborough section of Essex. "You can either sit home and watch TV or you can go out." Cardarelli, a widow who is in her early 70s ("I don't give my age away because that keeps my boyfriends around," she jokes), has a good chance of living for many more years, at least according to a study of almost 1,500 people aged 70 and older. The research, which appears in the July issue of the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, found that people who had more friends and who spent more time with them tended to live longer. Intriguingly, the researchers found that spending time with family did not seem to lengthen life. The study followed subjects for 10 years. The most interactive group, people who had five or more close friends and talked with them regularly, were 22 percent less likely to die than those who were least connected - no close friends and few social contacts of any kind. Copyright © 2005, The Baltimore Sun

Keyword: Neuroimmunology; Stress
Link ID: 7610 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Babies who sleep in the same bed as their parents are at greater risk of cot death, according to research. The Glasgow University study found babies sharing a bed were at risk even if the child was breast-fed and the parent was a non-smoker. Dr John McClure, chairman of the Scottish Cot Death Trust, said parents should only have their babies in bed for a feed or a cuddle. The research was carried out at the university between 1996 and 2000. The charity said cot death could not be prevented but the risk could be reduced if parents followed simple advice. HOW TO REDUCE COT DEATH RISK Both partners should reduce smoking during pregnancy Babies should be placed on their back to sleep Parents should also ensure their baby does not get too hot Keep baby's head uncovered Seek medical advice promptly if your baby is unwell In the first six months, a baby should sleep in a cot in the parents' room Do not share a bed with your baby if you smoke, have been drinking or taking drugs or are very tired Never sleep with a baby on a chair or an armchair Babies should not sleep in their parents' bed, particularly in the first three months and adults have been warned against falling asleep with a baby on a couch or a chair.

Keyword: Sleep
Link ID: 7609 - Posted: 07.08.2005

Making the morning-after pill available to buy in chemists has not encouraged unsafe sex, say experts. Opponents had claimed there would be a surge in risky sexual behaviour and sexually transmitted infections. Researchers at Imperial College London found no change in condom use after the emergency pill became available over the counter in January 2001. Neither had more people used the emergency pill, they told the British Medical Journal. "These results suggest that the predicted rise in unsafe sex has been overstated and supports the case for lifting the ban on over the counter sales in the US and other countries," said lead researcher Dr Cicely Marston. Her team looked at survey responses from women aged 16-49 in 2000, 2001 and 2002 who were asked about their sex lives. Each year, there were about 2,000 responses. Based on these, the researchers were able to gauge that there had been no significant change in contraceptive use among the women. One in five women said they used condoms, a third used the oral contraceptive pill, a coil or hormone implants and about one in 10 said they used no method. The number of women who said they used the morning-after pill did not change over the three years studied - around 8% of the women or 160 in each of the years. However, where they got it from did. (c)bbc

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 7608 - Posted: 07.08.2005

CAMBRIDGE, Mass., -- Researchers at Harvard University have found evidence that the retina actively seeks novel features in the visual environment, dynamically adjusting its processing in order to seek the unusual while ignoring the commonplace. The scientists report in this week's issue of the journal Nature on their finding that this principle of novelty-detection operates in many visual environments. "Apparently our thirst for novelty begins in the eye itself," says Markus Meister, the Jeff C. Tarr Professor of Molecular and Cellular Biology in Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences. "Our eyes report the visual world to the brain, but not very faithfully. Instead, the retina creates a cartoonist's sketch of the visual scene, highlighting key features while suppressing the less interesting regions." These findings provide evidence that the ultimate goal of the visual system is not simply to construct internally an exact reproduction of the external world, Meister and his colleagues write in Nature. Rather, the system seeks to extract from the onslaught of raw visual information the few bits of data that are relevant to behavior. This entails the discarding of signals that are less useful, and dynamic retinal adaptation provides a means of stripping from the visual stream predictable and therefore less newsworthy signals. For example, Meister says, in visual environments such as forests or fields of grass with many vertical elements but only rare horizontal features, the retina adjusts to suppress the routine vertical features while highlighting the singular horizontal elements.

Keyword: Vision
Link ID: 7607 - Posted: 07.08.2005

Tim Simonite Deep-sea fish are suckers for lures lit up in red, say California researchers, challenging a long-held belief of marine biologists. They claim that a deep-sea relative of jellyfish uses glowing tentacles to catch its supper. Using a remotely operated submersible, up to 2,300 metres beneath the waves off the coast of California, Steven Haddock and colleagues collected three specimens of a new species of siphonophore, a group closely related to jellyfish and corals. Two of the three had the remains of fish in their guts. As fish are rare at those depths, this indicates that the species (which has not yet been named but is part of the genus Erenna) has a knack for angling. In the 8 July issue of the journal Science1, Haddock, a bioluminescence expert from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, and his team suggest the siphonophore uses red light as bait to capture its prey. The newly described species has glowing red spots inside its stinging tentacles, which it flicks rhythmically. "The motion and shape of the lures is quite distinct and nearly identical to that of a copepod," says Haddock, suggesting that the siphonophore mimics the movements of plankton to catch the attention of fish. "To us, the accumulated evidence is hard to explain any other way," he adds. ©2005 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Vision
Link ID: 7606 - Posted: 06.24.2010

PITTSBURGH, – Just why those with anorexia nervosa are driven to be excessively thin and seem unaware of the seriousness of their condition could be due to over-activity of a chemical system found in a region deep inside the brain, a University of Pittsburgh study suggests. Reporting in the journal Biological Psychiatry, researchers found an over-activity of dopamine receptors in the brain's basal ganglia, an area known to play a role in how people learn from experience and make choices. Results of the study, led by Walter Kaye, M.D., of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and Guido Frank, M.D., now of the University of California at San Diego, contribute to the understanding of what may cause anorexia. The disorder affects about 1 percent of American women, some of whom die from complications of the disease. The research may point to a molecular target for development of more effective treatments than those currently available. The study is the first to use positron emission tomography (PET) imaging to assess the activity of brain dopamine receptors, a neurotransmitter system that is best known for its role in controlling movement. These receptors also are associated with weight and feeding behaviors and responses to reinforcement and reward. Researchers used a harmless molecule designed to bind to the dopamine D2 and D3 receptors that lie on the membrane surface of neurons. Ten women who had recovered from anorexia nervosa for more than a year were studied, as were 12 normal female subjects. Because malnourishment affects brain chemistry, the researchers did not include acutely ill women in their study.

Keyword: Anorexia & Bulimia
Link ID: 7605 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Despite tremendous advances in neonatal intensive care, premature babies with underdeveloped lungs remain at risk for brain injury and delayed development. In the July 7, 2005, issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, researchers from the University of Chicago report that adding tiny amounts of nitric oxide to the oxygen given to these premature infants on a mechanical ventilator in the first week of hospitalization reduced by nearly half the number of children with abnormal mental development at age 2. This study follows a 2003 report by the same group showing that inhaled nitric oxide decreased the risk of chronic lung disease, severe bleeding into the brain and death in premature infants with respiratory distress syndrome. The latest study, which focused on the mental development of the same children when assessed by neurologists near their second birthday, found that only 24 percent of the children who received nitric oxide at birth had delayed mental development or a disability, such as blindness, cerebral palsy or hearing loss, compared to 46 percent of those who received standard treatment of oxygen with no nitric oxide. "This is the first therapy for premature infants that has demonstrated a significant impact on brain development," said study director Michael Schreiber, MD, professor of pediatrics at the University of Chicago. "Not only does nitric oxide extend life in a large group of premature infants, it also improves the quality of life for the children and their parents." Copyright © 2005 University of Chicago Hospitals.

Keyword: Development of the Brain
Link ID: 7604 - Posted: 06.24.2010

La Jolla, Calif. – A research team lead by the Burnham Institute has synthesized and tested a new series of inhibitors that can prevent the type of nerve cell injury and death associated with many neurodegenerative diseases and stroke. The study, led by Stuart Lipton, MD, PhD, professor and director of Burnham's Del E. Webb Center for Neuroscience and Aging Research, is published in the July issue of the Journal of Neuroscience. There is but one medical treatment approved for stroke, the third leading cause of death in the United States: tissue plasminogen activator ("tPA"). tPA must be administered within 3 hours of stroke onset to restore the flow of blood to the brain. Unfortunately, treatment with tPA can also contribute to nerve cell damage. In recent years, medical scientists have begun to understand that tPA activates an entire family of enzymes, called matrix metalloproteinases, that normally regulate how cell structures are held together. Dr. Lipton, together with first author Dr. Zezong Gu, and other colleagues at Burnham, University of Notre Dame, and Wayne State University in Detroit, have found that a molecule called SB-3CT blocks the activity of one member of the metalloproteinase family, called MMP-9. Previous work at Burnham and elsewhere has shown that damage to the brain triggers excessive activity among MMPs, especially MMP-9. The enzymes degrade cell structures, inducing cell death and escalating brain damage in mice. In the current study, the researchers determined the particular mechanism of action for MMP-9. In doing so, they identified a new drug target and, armed with this knowledge, generated a lead therapeutic compound, SB-3CT.

Keyword: Stroke
Link ID: 7603 - Posted: 06.24.2010