By KATHERINE BOUTON Imagine, Michael Chorost proposes, that four police officers on a drug raid are connected mentally in a way that allows them to sense what their colleagues are seeing and feeling. Tony Vittorio, the captain, is in the center room of the three-room drug den. He can sense that his partner Wilson, in the room on his left, is not feeling danger or arousal and thus has encountered no one. But suddenly Vittorio feels a distant thump on his chest. Sarsen, in the room on the right, has been hit with something, possibly a bullet fired from a gun with a silencer. Vittorio glimpses a flickering image of a metallic barrel pointed at Sarsen, who is projecting overwhelming shock and alarm. By deducing how far Sarsen might have gone into the room and where the gunman is likely to be standing, Vittorio fires shots into the wall that will, at the very least, distract the gunman and allow Sarsen to shoot back. Sarsen is saved; the gunman is dead. That scene, from his new book, “World Wide Mind,” is an example of what Mr. Chorost sees as “the coming integration of humanity, machines, and the Internet.” The prediction is conceptually feasible, he tells us, something that technology does not yet permit but that breaks no known physical laws. © 2011 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Robotics; Hearing
Link ID: 15004 - Posted: 02.15.2011

By Mark Fischetti A dozen brain regions, working together, create feelings of passionate love. Stephanie Ortigue of Syracuse University and her colleagues worldwide compared MRI studies of people who indicated they were either in love or were experiencing maternal or unconditional love. The comparison revealed a "passion network"—the red regions shown here at various angles. The network releases neurotransmitters and other chemicals in the brain and blood that create the sensations of attraction, arousal, pleasure…and obsession. For more details on how the network affects cognitive functions, see "Graphic Science: Your Brain in Love" in the February 2011 issue of Scientific American. Graphic by James W. Lewis, West Virginia University © 2011 Scientific American

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Brain imaging
Link ID: 15003 - Posted: 02.15.2011

by Wendy Zukerman Is it that time of the month? These are the words no man should ever utter. How about this for a diplomatic alternative: "Are your GABA receptors playing up?" You may be spot on. It seems that these brain cells are to blame for some women's monthly mood swings. Many women feel a little irritable before menstruating, but up to 8 per cent suffer extreme symptoms, including anxiety, depression and fatigue. Symptoms of what's called premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) begin around a week before menstruation when women are in the "late luteal phase" of their cycle and progesterone levels are at their height. Symptoms quickly subside after menstruation, once the so-called "follicular phase" has kicked in. To investigate potential mechanisms behind PMDD, Andrea Rapkin at the University of California, Los Angeles used a PET scan, which shows where glucose is being metabolised to identify activity in the brain. The idea was to analyse the brain activity of 12 women with PMDD and 12 without the condition, at various times throughout their menstrual cycle. Before each scan, the women rated the severity of any symptoms they had on a scale of one to six. Blood samples were also taken to test their hormone levels. Fluctuating hormones were not to blame: all the women experienced similar jumps in progesterone levels throughout their cycle, irrespective of whether they had PMDD or not. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Hormones & Behavior; Emotions
Link ID: 15002 - Posted: 02.15.2011

by Rachel Courtland How does a nose generate the signals that the brain registers as smell? The conventional theory says it's down to the different shapes of smelly molecules. But fruit flies have now distinguished between two molecules with identical shapes, providing the first experimental evidence to support a controversial theory that the sense of smell can operate by detecting molecular vibrations. The noses of mammals, and the antennae of flies, are lined with different folded proteins that form pocket-shaped "receptors". It has been generally assumed that a smell arises when an odour molecule slides into a receptor like a key in a lock, altering the receptor's shape and triggering a cascade of chemical events that eventually reach the brain. But this "shape" theory has limitations. For one, it can't easily explain why different molecules can have very similar smells. In 1996, Luca Turin, a biophysicist now at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, proposed a solution. He revived a theory that the way a molecule vibrates can dictate it odour, and came up with a mechanism to explain how this might work. His idea was that electrons might only be able to pass across a receptor if it was bound to a molecule that vibrated at just the right frequency. Ordinarily, the energy needed for the electron to make this journey would be too great, but the right vibrational energy could prompt a quantum effect in which the electron "tunnels" through this energy barrier, and this would then be detected and registered as a particular smell (see diagram). © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Chemical Senses (Smell & Taste)
Link ID: 15001 - Posted: 02.15.2011

By JAMES DAO, BENEDICT CAREY and DAN FROSCH In his last months alive, Senior Airman Anthony Mena rarely left home without a backpack filled with medications. He returned from his second deployment to Iraq complaining of back pain, insomnia, anxiety and nightmares. Doctors diagnosed post-traumatic stress disorder and prescribed powerful cocktails of psychiatric drugs and narcotics. Yet his pain only deepened, as did his depression. “I have almost given up hope,” he told a doctor in 2008, medical records show. “I should have died in Iraq.” Airman Mena died instead in his Albuquerque apartment, on July 21, 2009, five months after leaving the Air Force on a medical discharge. A toxicologist found eight prescription medications in his blood, including three antidepressants, a sedative, a sleeping pill and two potent painkillers. Yet his death was no suicide, the medical examiner concluded. What killed Airman Mena was not an overdose of any one drug, but the interaction of many. He was 23. After a decade of treating thousands of wounded troops, the military’s medical system is awash in prescription drugs — and the results have sometimes been deadly. By some estimates, well over 300,000 troops have returned from Iraq or Afghanistan with P.T.S.D., depression, traumatic brain injury or some combination of those. The Pentagon has looked to pharmacology to treat those complex problems, following the lead of civilian medicine. As a result, psychiatric drugs have been used more widely across the military than in any previous war. © 2011 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Stress; Depression
Link ID: 15000 - Posted: 02.14.2011

NEW YORK — Compared to a sleek new laptop, that three-pound mass of fatty tissue called the brain may not look like much. But when it's injured, it adapts and rewires its circuits in new ways. That's the kind of flexibility that doctors and rehabilitation specialists hope to encourage in Gabrielle Giffords, the brain-injured Arizona congresswoman. Details about her recovery have been thin. But members of her staff say she recently began speaking for the first time since the Jan. 8 attack by a gunman in Tucson. Brain injury patients who regain speech typically begin to do that about four to six weeks after the injury, experts say. Still, recovery for the 40-year-old Giffords will be a long, tough journey, as it is for anyone with a significant brain injury. Patients can make remarkable progress. But experts caution that they shouldn't expect to return to exactly the way they were before. Too little has been revealed and it's too early to say if Giffords might be able to return to her job in Congress. One expert questioned whether that would be the best thing for her to do. Most people with such injuries have some level of impairment for the rest of their lives. The New York Times on Sunday reported that some of Giffords' efforts to relearn how to speak include mouthing the words to song lyrics, such as "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star," and briefly talking with her brother-in-law by telephone while he orbited aboard the International Space Station. Copyright 2011 The Associated Press.

Keyword: Regeneration; Brain Injury/Concussion
Link ID: 14999 - Posted: 02.14.2011

By Gary Stix A debate rages on whether President Reagan did or didn't have Alzheimer's disease during his time in office. With what we have learned in the last decade about the disease, the question is relatively meaningless, except perhaps to score political points. The simple answer: of course he did. The newest technology—consisting of imaging and spinal taps—shows that the disease process begins its relentless course as many as 15 years before a firm diagnosis. By the time the first symptoms appear, the disease is already progressing. While in office, Reagan had moments of incomprehension interspersed with fully lucid thinking. So Reagan was well along the glide path to dementia when he was staring down the Evil Empire. The beloved conservative acronym WWRD might have been reframed: WSHBDAR: What Should Have Been Done About Reagan. It doesn't really matter. Reagan will retain his exalted status within conservative hagiography. The more interesting question lurks ahead for future presidential candidates. The most significant advance in the Alzheimer's field in recent years is the advent of these imaging and spinal fluid "biomarkers" that can probe the course of the disease years before the first symptom. The techniques might not be fully ready for prime time, but they're getting there fast. In January, an FDA advisory panel voted to recommend, with just a few conditions, the approval of an imaging test that shows in living patients the buildup of the amyloid protein fragments characteristic of the disease. © 2011 Scientific American

Keyword: Alzheimers
Link ID: 14998 - Posted: 02.14.2011

By Emily Sohn People love music for much the same reason they're drawn to sex, drugs, gambling and delicious food, according to new research. When you listen to tunes that move you, the study found, your brain releases dopamine, a chemical involved in both motivation and addiction. Even just anticipating the sounds of a composition like Vivaldi's "Four Seasons" or Phish's "You Enjoy Myself" can get the feel-good chemical flowing, found the study, which was the first to make a concrete link between dopamine release and musical pleasure. The findings offer a biological explanation for why music has been such a major part of major emotional events in cultures around the world since the beginning of human history. Through music, the study also offers new insights into how the human pleasure system works. "You're following these tunes and anticipating what's going to come next and whether it's going to confirm or surprise you, and all of these little cognitive nuances are what's giving you this amazing pleasure," said Valorie Salimpoor, a neuroscientist at McGill University in Montreal. "The reinforcement or reward happens almost entirely because of dopamine." "This basically explains why music has been around for so long," she added. "The intense pleasure we get from it is actually biologically reinforcing in the brain, and now here's proof for it." © 2011 Discovery Communications, LLC.

Keyword: Hearing; Emotions
Link ID: 14997 - Posted: 02.14.2011

Dr. Russell A. Barkley First, it is important to note that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder does not present all that much differently in women from the way it does in men. Most research on this issue has confirmed this. While symptoms may vary somewhat among children, they are virtually the same by adulthood. In childhood, boys are three times as likely as girls to have A.D.H.D. Boys with the disorder tend to be more hyperactive and impulsive and are more likely to develop oppositional behavior, conduct problems and later delinquency than girls, though girls, too, can develop these problems. Girls, on the other hand, may be more prone to develop anxiety, depression and eating disorders — bulimia, in particular. By adulthood, the proportion of men to women with the disorder is nearly even, and there are few differences in the symptoms. Both men and women have significant problems with executive functioning, which involves skills like time management, self-organization and problem-solving, as well as self-restraint, self-motivation and self-regulation of emotions. All of these problems can have a major effect on daily life activities, like family relations, child-rearing, managing money, functioning at work or driving. Where men and women may differ is in the amount of time they engage in these activities – and the subsequent impact on daily life. A woman who works full time outside the home, for instance, would have more work-related difficulties, whereas a stay-at-home mother might have more problems related to home life. To the extent that women may opt for certain roles, those roles will be more greatly affected by the disorder, and vice versa for men. © 2011 The New York Times Company

Keyword: ADHD; Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 14996 - Posted: 02.12.2011

By Wynne Parry Experience can be a disadvantage, since preconceptions may limit our ability to creatively solve a problem we think we've seen before. However, stimulating the brain in a certain way may provide flashes of insight, according to two scientists. In a study of 67 adults, researchers found that electrical stimulation of two parts of the brain prompted three times as many participants to come up with an insightful solution to a puzzle compared with those who didn't receive a brain zap. "Our experiences can blind us," Richard Chi and Allan Snyder, researchers at the Center for the Mind at the University of Sydney in Australia, write in the Feb. 2 issue of the journal PLoS ONE. "Once we have learned to solve problems by one method, we often have difficulties in generating solutions involving a different kind of insight." Chi and Snyder set out to induce a temporary mental state less constrained by preconceptions, focusing on the brain's anterior temporal lobes, located just above the ears. The left anterior temporal lobe is associated with maintaining existing concepts and representations of these concepts; research has shown that when this brain region is inhibited, people are less likely to draw on their preconceived notions. The right anterior temporal lobe, meanwhile, is associated with insight. They gave study participants "matchstick arithmetic" puzzles, in which matchsticks spelled out inaccurate equations in Roman numerals. Participants had to correct the statements by moving only one stick. They first solved 27 puzzles all with a particular type of solution — making an "X" into a "V." © 2011 LiveScience.com.

Keyword: Attention
Link ID: 14995 - Posted: 02.12.2011

Ewen Callaway Sex and violence are intertwined in mice. A tiny patch of cells buried deep within a male's brain determines whether it fights or mates, and there is good reason to believe humans possess a similar circuit. The study, published in Nature today1, shows that when these neurons are quieted, mice ignore intruding males they would otherwise attack. Yet when the cells are activated, mice assault inanimate objects, and even females they ought to court. The cells lie within an area of the hypothalamus with known links to violent behaviour. An electrical jolt to this vicinity causes cats and rats to turn violent, but neurophysiological experiments conducted decades ago stimulated too big an area to identify the specific brain circuits, let alone the individual neurons, involved in aggression. More recently, scientists studying mice engineered to lack specific genes have found that some of them act more aggressively than normal mice. "We really don't know which part of the brain went wrong in those mice. Consequently it's tough to make sense of that behaviour," says Dayu Lin, a neuroscientist now at New York University and an author of the study, who began searching for the seat of aggression in mice while working with David Anderson at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. © 2011 Nature Publishing Group,

Keyword: Aggression; Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 14994 - Posted: 02.12.2011

By Janet Raloff On his third consecutive evening of air combat, a military pilot closes in on the night’s quarry, a suspected Taliban fuel depot in Afghanistan. Fatigued, his alertness flagging, the pilot throws some chewing gum into his mouth. Laced with caffeine, it’s the cockpit alternative to a cup of coffee. This pilot would probably suspect that the gum is just a perk-me-up. But several caffeinated military rations — including this relatively new one — do more than stave off sleepiness. Emerging data indicate that these rations boost not only attention but also cognitive performance, features that do not necessarily climb in lockstep. The U.S. Department of Defense has been investigating such supplements to improve the ability of U.S. armed forces to maintain sustained periods of intense vigilance and focus, explains Harris Lieberman, a psychologist at the Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine in Natick, Mass. Another hope, he notes: These dietary aids might minimize the risk of “friendly fire.” Army researchers at the institute, including Lieberman, are at the forefront of a small but growing cadre of investigators exploring how to boost what they call mental energy. This rather fuzzy phrase embraces wakefulness, but also includes mood, motivation and the capacity to perform key mental tasks. Increasing mental energy is important for those enervated because of a lack of sleep or for those whose jobs, like those of fighter pilots, require vigilance even in the face of sleep deprivation. Compounds that keep you awake, it turns out, can also boost other aspects of mental performance. Improved cognition is emerging as a quantifiable side benefit of many of these substances — in some cases, even for those folks who aren’t sleepy to begin with. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2011

Keyword: ADHD; Drug Abuse
Link ID: 14993 - Posted: 02.12.2011

New research shows a link between use of two pesticides, rotenone and paraquat, and Parkinson's disease. People who used either pesticide developed Parkinson’s disease approximately 2.5 times more often than non-users. "Rotenone directly inhibits the function of the mitochondria, the structure responsible for making energy in the cell," said Freya Kamel, Ph.D., a researcher in the intramural program at NIEHS and co-author of the paper appearing online in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives. "Paraquat increases production of certain oxygen derivatives that may harm cellular structures. People who used these pesticides or others with a similar mechanism of action were more likely to develop Parkinson's disease. The authors studied 110 people with Parkinson’s disease and 358 matched controls from the Farming and Movement Evaluation (FAME) Study (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/atniehs/labs/epi/studies/fame/index.cfm) to investigate the relationship between Parkinson’s disease and exposure to pesticides or other agents that are toxic to nervous tissue. FAME is a case-control study that is part of the larger Agricultural Health Study (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/atniehs/labs/epi/studies/ahs/index.cfm), a study of farming and health in approximately 90,000 licensed pesticide applicators and their spouses. The investigators diagnosed Parkinson's disease by agreement of movement disorder specialists and assessed the lifelong use of pesticides using detailed interviews.

Keyword: Parkinsons; Neurotoxins
Link ID: 14992 - Posted: 02.12.2011

Jessica Marshall Mild-mannered male squid turn into furious fighting machines when their tentacles brush a chemical on the surface of squid eggs, a finding that could give insights into how aggression works. The discovery also reveals how male squid compete for female mating partners. "I think that this is really a novel and kind of wonderful addition to our understanding of how aggression might work," said Russell Fernald of Stanford University, who was not a part of the study. Researchers diving on squid spawning grounds had noticed that not just female squid would hang around the many mop-like clusters of egg capsules. "We noticed underwater that the males were attracted to the eggs, too. This made no sense. All the eggs are fertilized already. This caught our attention," lead author Roger Hanlon of the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Mass. told Discovery News. A key to solving the puzzle came during a Cape Cod dive. "There was absolutely nothing that was happening, it was Deadsville." Hanlon said. So, he fetched some squid eggs from the boat and brought them back to the dive site. "I just put the squid eggs on the bottom. Within a minute or two, one bold male squid went down and touched them. He came back up to the squid above him and started fighting with other squid." © 2011 Discovery Communications, LLC.

Keyword: Aggression; Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 14991 - Posted: 02.12.2011

By Susan Gaidos You know the feeling — the flush of excitement when your boss hands you a bonus check, or you unexpectedly run into an old friend, or you discover a way to get tickets to the big game that was long ago sold out. When life throws you a gift or a gain, it’s not just your mood that perks up. Two small almond-shaped masses of nerve cells buried deep in your brain take notice too. Those clumps of cells, one on each side of the brain, are known as the amygdala (uh-MIG-duh-luh). For years the amygdala has been regarded primarily as the brain’s center for fear. Scores of studies have shown that it is essential both for perceiving fear and expressing it. In recent years, though, a surge of new research has expanded scientists’ view of the amygdala’s importance. It turns out that the amygdala helps shape behavior in response to all sorts of stimuli, bad and good. It plays a role not only in aversion to fright, but also in pursuit of pleasure. Studies of the brain’s anatomy reveal good reasons for the amygdala’s power: It is very well connected. In humans and other primates, the amygdala is linked through a complex network of cells to brain regions involved in all five senses. Signals about everything you encounter are passed from the brain’s sensory processing areas directly to the amygdala. And the amygdala shares elaborate communications channels with the prefrontal cortex — the brain’s control center for planning and decision making. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2011

Keyword: Emotions
Link ID: 14990 - Posted: 02.12.2011

by Kirsten Weir 1 Remember the tongue map you learned about in junior high—the one showing taste receptors for sweet flavors on the tip of the tongue, bitter in the back, and sour on the sides? It’s totally wrong. 2 That bogus map came from an English mistranslation of a German research paper. 3 In truth, any area can pick up any taste (although sensitivity does vary across the tongue). 4 We all know about sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Less widely known is the fifth taste: umami, that savory flavor of soy sauce, tomatoes, and many other foods high in glutamate. 5 Go with your gut: Japanese scientists recently identified umami receptors not only on the tongue but throughout the digestive tract. Their role in digestion and nutrition remains a mystery. 6 Those bumps on your tongue aren’t actually your taste buds. They are fungiform papillae—“mushroom-shaped nipples,” to any Latin speakers out there—and each houses 50 to 100 buds. 7 Scientists believe there are only a few receptor types each for sweet, sour, salty, and umami. But there are a lot more for bitter (at least 25), as anyone paying alimony is probably aware. © 2011, Kalmbach Publishing Co.

Keyword: Chemical Senses (Smell & Taste)
Link ID: 14989 - Posted: 02.12.2011

Catherine de Lange, reporter Romantics say you should follow your heart. So in anticipation of Valentine's Day, here's an illusion where you have to do just that. Spot it? What you should have seen is that the blurry hearts don't seem to move at the same rate as the sharp-edged ones. Here's another illusion which seems to work in the same way: this time, follow the green heart. This is quite a subtle effect, so you may not be able to spot it at first, but you should see the blurred hearts move in the opposite direction to your eye, while the sharp-edged hearts stay fixed. Both of these illusions were sent to us by Kohske Takahashi, a perception researcher at the University of Tokyo. As we reported last year, Takahashi stumbled upon this type of illusion, quite by chance, when staring at some heat maps he had created to visualise his research data. His first examples were static: a blurry heart appears to pulse whereas one with crisp edges does not. When an object has a blurry contour, it doesn't give our eyes enough detail about the shape of the figure - while we have an idea of its shape, size and orientation, its boundary isn't clearly defined. Takahashi's blurry heart images appear to wobble as our brain tries to decipher where the shape ends and the background begins. Takahashi thinks the same principle could be at work in these two videos, but with the added complication of motion. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Vision
Link ID: 14988 - Posted: 02.12.2011

by Eliza Strickland A sad person who says that the world looks dull and gray and that flowers no longer smell so sweet may not just be speaking figuratively. Two recent studies from Germany provide evidence that sensory perception is diminished in depressed individuals. To determine if depression has an effect on vision, neuropsychiatrist Ludger Tebartz van Elst of the University of Freiburg hooked up depressed patients and control subjects to a pattern electroretinograph, a device that measures electrical signals in the retina. When viewing black-and-white checkerboard images, people with depression showed markedly reduced electrical responses. advertisement | article continues below The effect may originate in the retina’s amacrine cells, which feed sensory input to the neurons in the eye. Amacrine cells rely on the neurotransmitter dopamine to function, and mood disorders have been linked to dopamine dysfunctions in the brain. Tebartz van Elst believes the visual response test could serve as an objective measure for establishing a diagnosis of depression: “The patients don’t have to say anything at all—they just keep their eyes open,” he says. Separately, otorhinolaryngologist Thomas Hummel of the University of Dresden Medical School explored odor perception in depressed patients. Compared with control subjects, he found, people suffering from depression were less able to detect weak smells; MRI scans revealed that they had smaller olfactory bulbs, the brain structures involved in odor perception. Both Hummel and Tebartz van Elst next plan to investigate whether the successful treatment of depression restores the richness of the senses. © 2011, Kalmbach Publishing Co.

Keyword: Depression
Link ID: 14987 - Posted: 02.12.2011

By David Nichols As a chemist at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Ind., David Nichols studies psychedelic compounds in a quest to understand the brain, often creating new compounds as part of his research. He was recently dismayed to find himself cited by name in a newspaper article about an amateur chemist who scours the scientific literature for recipes that he can use to produce designer drugs that are legal but untested and often unsafe. In fact, street drugs based on a paper that Nichols published years ago have contributed to a number of deaths. Nichols recently spoke with Science News neuroscience writer Laura Sanders about the misuse of his research and the dangers that can accompany the free exchange of scientific information. How did you learn that people were using your published research to create new drugs? There was a Wall Street Journal article in their health section in October, and in that article the writer had interviewed a chemist, I believe in Belgium, who was making these so-called ‘legal highs.’ And he was very open about what he did. He said, ‘You know, what I’m doing is legal.’ A former crack addict, by the way…. He said, ‘Well, I search the literature, and the work of David Nichols is particularly valuable to us.’ Were you surprised to see your name? Well, the thing that happened earlier, in the late 1990s, was that we had been doing research on ecstasy, MDMA, and we had made a compound called MTA. I got an e-mail from a colleague one day that said, ‘Did you know that people have been making tablets with MTA in it, I think in the Netherlands, and a couple of people have died?’ So that was kind of a shocker to me because the work that we had done suggested if anything, it might have utility as an antidepressant that would be a little faster acting than Prozac and the standard antidepressants. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2011

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 14986 - Posted: 02.12.2011

Admit it: You love your dog, your cat, even your white rat. And so you’re planning to lavish a platter of filet mignon on your doggy-love… a plank of sushi-grade tuna on kitty numero-uno, and some aged cheese on your rodent. But do our dogs, cats and rats love us back? Sure, parrots are endlessly uttering “I love you” on You Tube, and some bereaved dogs seem to grieve for their dead owners. And yes, some animals “love” to spend time together. But that doesn’t answer our nagging question: Can animals really love? Or are we projecting our own feelings of affiliation, closeness, and passion on beasts that don’t have the mental machinery to love? Almost like being in love? More than half a century ago, Harry Harlow, a research psychologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, performed experiments that forever changed our view of human and animal emotions. At a time when academic psychologists explored learning and behavior by studying rats, when low-grade learning in a “Skinner Box” was considered high-grade science, when hospitals limited contact between mothers and their newborns, Harlow focused on maternal touch and the emotional life of monkeys.

Keyword: Emotions; Evolution
Link ID: 14985 - Posted: 02.12.2011