By Jayne Lytel Paging through 176 MRI scans of my 9-year-old's brain on my home computer, I discovered a button that let me play them as a movie. Gray swirls burst onto the screen, dissolving into one another and revealing a new set of patterns. Beams of light faded in and out, some curving and traveling around the different regions of his brain. I saw the squiggly folds of his cerebral cortex, the gray matter that is the center of human intelligence. These scans, the most intimate pictures I had ever seen of my son, Leo, may help researchers understand what's going on in his head -- and relieve him of a diagnosis that I have devoted several years to helping him overcome. Leo, identified as No. C1059, underwent the scans as part of a research study at the Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center at Hartford Hospital in Connecticut. He was thrilled to earn $200 for taking part. I smiled along with him, because I could remember the days when he had a limited range of emotions, and pride was not one of them. The study is examining 35 children, ranging in age from 8 to 17, who once had an autism-spectrum diagnosis but no longer do. Leo was invited to participate based on how I had described changes in his behavior and communication skills since he was given an autism diagnosis seven years ago. It is one of several studies underway to clarify the experiences of a growing number of children who are apparently emerging from autism and its related disorders to function almost indistinguishably from their peers; it aims to reveal whether it is indeed possible to recover from autism. © 2008 The Washington Post Company

Keyword: Autism
Link ID: 12242 - Posted: 06.24.2010

They say "romantic love" was invented by the troubadors of the Middle Ages. They also say it doesn't last. But Rutgers University anthropologist Helen Fisher and colleagues reported today that functional brain imaging studies show that being "in love" transcends both culture and time. The researchers imaged the brains of 17 young Americans and 17 young Chinese who had been in intense love relationships for 6 months. The team compared how the volunteers' brains reacted to a photograph of a loved one versus a photo of someone they didn't know. When viewing a loved one, the brains of the volunteers registered activity in "several regions associated with addiction," said Fisher--notably in the ventral tegmental area, a region of the brain stem that are rich in receptors for dopamine, the chief actor in the brain's "reward circuit". The team also rounded up 17 people of both sexes, aged 40 to 65, married at least 20 years, who said they were still "in love" with their spouses. The researchers found that the same areas were activated in most of them on viewing a photo of their spouse. But longterm romantic love also stirred up brainstem regions rich in serotonin (see pic) and a chemical called vasopressin, which is associated with monogamy in voles. The upshot is that the long-marrieds have the best of both worlds--they are still in love, but the "the obsession, mania and anxiety" of newly-hatched infatuation "is replaced by calm," said Fisher. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science. All Rights Reserved.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Emotions
Link ID: 12241 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Epigenetics has been a hot topic at this year's meeting. When I ducked out of a symposium devoted to it on Saturday afternoon to catch another talk, by the time I got back the room was jam packed and a convention center employee was turning people away. "If the fire marshal comes we'll be in big trouble," she said. There was only slightly more elbow room at this afternoon's press conference, where half a dozen researchers described their recent work investigating the possible roles of epigenetic mechanisms in everything from learning and memory to problems such as obesity, drug addiction and anxiety. In a nutshell, epigenetics means altering gene expression without messing with DNA sequences. It includes DNA methylation, a chemical alteration to DNA that prevents genes from being read out to make proteins, and histone deacetylation, which accomplishes the same thing by keeping DNA strands tightly wound around spool-like histone proteins. Epigenetics has been a growing area of exploration in cancer biology over the last 20 years. Drugs that inhibit histone deacetylation, for example, have shown promise as cancer-fighting drugs. Relatively little is known about the role of epigenetic mechanisms in the brain, but researchers described several intriguing findings at the press conference. Among them: Tracy Bale of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia presented findings suggesting that high-fat diets during pregnancy can increase the body size of subsequent generations via epigenetic mechanisms in mice. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science. All Rights Reserved.

Keyword: Learning & Memory; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 12240 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Ashley Yeager Scientists whose work came under scrutiny during a political debate about work funded by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland, censored their own later work, a new study has found1. In July 2003, former congressman Patrick Toomey (Republican, Pennsylvania) argued that NIH grants funding studies on certain types of sexual behaviour were less worthy of taxpayer dollars than those on devastating diseases. He proposed an amendment to the 2004 NIH appropriations bill to revoke funding for five grants — four of which examined sexual behaviour. Toomey's amendment was defeated by two votes, but after a congressional investigation later in 2003, NIH director Elias Zerhouni was sent a list of 250 grants by 157 scientists, most of which were for studies on sexual behaviour and drug use. Republicans involved in the investigation said that the list was sent accidentally. Zerhouni nonetheless investigated all the grants on the list and later wrote to Congress defending the studies. Now, Joanna Kempner, a sociologist at Rutgers University in Piscataway, New Jersey, has surveyed and interviewed many of the principal investigators whose grants came under scrutiny. She has found that many of them subsequently used less-controversial language and, in some cases, changed the focus of their work to avoid such areas altogether. © 2008 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 12239 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Laura Sanders WASHINGTON — New research on brain activity confirms that people can be madly in love with each other long after the honeymoon is over. Researchers led by Bianca Acevedo at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York wanted to know if romantic love — or at least the brain activity it triggers — could last in a long-term relationship. To everyone’s relief, the answer is yes. The group presented its results November 16 at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. The new data suggest that people who have been madly in love for an average of 21 years maintain activation in a brain region associated with early-stage love. “We now have physiological evidence that romantic love can last,” says coauthor Helen Fisher, a biological anthropologist from Rutgers University in New Brunswick, N.J. Most couples who have been together for many years experience a change from a frenetic, obsessive love to something more subdued and comfortable, says study coauthor Lucy Brown of Albert Einstein College of Medicine. But the researchers noticed a small group of outliers who had been with the same person many years and claimed to be as much in love as they were during the exciting early days of their relationship. Since that earlier study in 2005 using functional MRI brain imaging, the researchers knew that a certain part of the brain called the ventral tegmental area was activated when people who had been in love for relatively short times — an average of seven months — saw pictures of their sweethearts. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2008

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Emotions
Link ID: 12238 - Posted: 06.24.2010

by Alison Motluk RATS with breathing problems caused by damage to their nerves have had normal breathing restored by bursts of visible light aimed onto the spinal cord. This achievement raises hopes that a miniature light source implanted near the spine might one day allow people with similar injuries to breathe normally. In 2005, Ed Boyden at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology infected neurons in Petri dishes with viruses carrying the ChR2 gene, which codes for a light-sensitive protein called channelrhodopsin-2. The neurons started expressing the protein, and this allowed the researchers to use pulses of light to control when the neurons fired (Nature Neuroscience, vol 8, p 1263). "The nerve cells think they are photoreceptors," says neuroscientist Jerry Silver at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. Silver has now taken things a step further with a study to investigate how this light-operated neuronal switch might be used to restore function lost as a result of nerve damage. His team cut part way through the spinal cords of rats at the second vertebra from the top, where the neck pivots, severing the connection between the spinal cord and the nerves that control one side of the diaphragm. This prevented messages from the brain getting to the diaphragm, leaving the animals with problems breathing. Similar injuries are the leading cause of death in people with spinal cord damage. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd

Keyword: Regeneration
Link ID: 12237 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Some tastes--like blue cheese or green olives--are "acquired." But can we conquer our aversion to a food before we even taste it for the first time? Neuroscientist Donald Katz at Brandeis University has shown that it can happen with rats. Rats like sweet tastes best of all. They also like salt. They dislike sour, and they hate bitter. Armed with this knowledge, Katz and colleagues decided to see if they could get the creatures to change their minds about bitter cocoa if they met a pal who seemed to like the stuff. First the researchers got a rat hungry enough that it would be willing to nibble at some raw cocoa. Then they put another rat in with it so rat number 2 could smell the first rat's breath. Finally, the researchers placed the second rat in a cage with two unfamiliar and not particularly appetizing dishes to choose from. Despite their innate aversion to bitter taste, the rats went for the cocoa. Electrode recordings of nerve-firing in the taste circuit showed that the test rats actually altered their evaluation of the cocoa. Taste is evaluated by the brain in three stages: in the first milliseconds, the substance is detected; then it's identified; then the amygdala, the seat of the emotions, sends a message to the cortex telling it whether the taste is noxious or palatable. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: Chemical Senses (Smell & Taste)
Link ID: 12236 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Even male zebrafinches need a bit of inspiration to do their best work. In her lecture here Saturday night, University of California, San Francisco neuroscientist Allison Doupe described how male finches tighten up their performance when a female is in view. With no one around, a male zebrafinch is liable to botch a few notes in his well-practiced song: sometimes he's a little flat, sometimes a little sharp. But with a fine-feathered female listening from a neighboring cage, he's more likely to hit all the right notes. Doupe's lab has been investigating the underlying neurophysiology, and she thinks this line of study may ultimately help clarify the function of the basal ganglia--a part of the brain that's crucial for learning skilled movements and one that's affected by several neuropsychiatric disorders. In one experiment, Mimi Kao in Doupe's lab used microelectrodes to record the activity of neurons in a brain region called LMAN, a component of the avian basal ganglia. When a male finch sang to a female, LMAN neurons fired in a predictable pattern, with individual neurons firing when he sang a particular element of the song. But when the same male sang on his own, the pattern deteriorated and became less precise--much like his song. When it comes to singing, Doupe suspects that the male zebrafinch brain has two modes: a performance mode, in which he tries to nail every note, and an "exploratory" or "singing in the shower" mode, in which he loosens up a bit and lets more variability creep in. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: Language; Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 12235 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Older "overlooked" treatments for irritable bowel syndrome may end up being the best option for patients, research suggests. Fibre, anti-spasmodic drugs and peppermint oil were all found to be effective in a review of the evidence. Guidelines on IBS should be updated in light of the findings, the researchers say in the British Medical Journal. A UK expert said there had been a general feeling among doctors that the therapies "didn't work". Between 5% and 20% of the population is estimated to suffer from IBS which is characterised by abdominal pain and an irregular bowel habit. The exact cause of the condition is unknown and recommendations for treatment include dietary advice, antidepressants and alternative therapies. Fibre, antispasmodics and peppermint oil are used to treat IBS, but evidence of their effectiveness is unclear because of conflicting results from studies, the researchers said. They have also been overlooked because of the focus on newer more expensive drugs which ended up being withdrawn due to lack of efficacy and safety concerns, they added. By trawling through all the studies comparing the therapies with dummy pills or no treatment, the researchers were able to look at data from 2,500 adult patients with IBS. Fibre, antispasmodics and peppermint oil were all found to be effective, with doctors needing to treat 11, 5 and 2.5 patients, respectively for one patient to benefit. Insoluble fibre such as bran was not beneficial; only isphaghula husk - a soluble form of fibre - significantly reduced symptoms. Hyoscine - extracted from the cork wood tree - was the most successful antispasmodic drug looked at and should be the first choice, the researchers said. Out of all three treatments, peppermint oil seemed to come out on top. (C)BBC

Keyword: Stress
Link ID: 12234 - Posted: 11.15.2008

A new Homo erectus fossil suggests that females had large, wide pelvises in order to deliver large-brained babies. Being born with a larger brain meant our ancestor became independent far more quickly than modern human infants. The new finding, published in Science magazine, conflicts with earlier ideas that suggest they had a tall, thin body shape adapted for running. Homo erectus is thought to be the first human-like creature to move out of Africa to colonise the world. The now extinct hominid species may also have been the first to control fire. The near-complete 1.4 million-year-old female pelvis was found near Gona in northern Ethiopia. As it was pieced together, the archaeologists were struck by the unusual width of the pelvis. Scott Simpson, a palaeontologist from Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, US, was one of those who made the discovery. "Proportionally her hips are wider than those of modern humans," he says. BBC © MMVIII

Keyword: Evolution
Link ID: 12233 - Posted: 06.24.2010

A legal battle in New York City highlights the healing power of dogs for children with autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Manhattan federal prosecutors have accused the owners of an Upper East Side residence of discriminating against 11-year-old Aaron Schein by preventing him from having a dog, The New York Daily News reports. Aaron has been diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome, often considered a high-functioning form of autism, and his doctors believe a service dog will relieve anxiety and help him cope with the disorder. People with Asperger’s usually have average or above-average intelligence, but they lack the intuitive ability to read social cues and find it difficult to make friends and form relationships. According to the newspaper, a lawsuit claims the building owners violated the Fair Housing Act by imposing unreasonable demands on Aaron’s parents before allowing a dog. “It is not right or legal for landlords to dictate the unreasonable terms and conditions by which persons with disabilities should live their lives,” said Kim Kendrick, an assistant secretary for the federal Housing and Urban Development Department, to the newspaper. After Aaron’s parents asked the co-op board to make an exception to the building’s strict no-pets rule, the building placed stringent conditions on the family. Among the restrictions reportedly imposed by the building: the dog couldn’t be left alone for more than two hours, it would have to be taken in and out of the building on a service elevator, monitoring of dog walkers who might take it for a stroll, and $1 million in liability insurance for any injury or property damage caused by the dog. A company-hired doctor reportedly agreed the dog was medically necessary. Copyright 2008 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Autism
Link ID: 12232 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By HENRY FOUNTAIN Unloved as they are, cockroaches do a lot of scurrying around in response to threats, human or otherwise. While these movements aren’t random, they aren’t entirely predictable either, researchers say in a study in Current Biology. Cockroaches choose from one of several preferred trajectories when running from a predator, and that variability is enough to confound their attackers most of the time. Paolo Domenici of the Methodological Chemistry Institute of the National Research Council of Italy and colleagues measured how the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) responded to a threat stimulus. They found that all of their test insects acted similarly, running away at an angle from the direction of the threat. Although there was some variability, the researchers discovered that over repeated tests this angle of escape ranged from about 90 degrees (at a right angle to the direction of the threat) to 180 degrees (the opposite direction), with peaks, or preferred trajectories, of about 90, 120, 150 and 180 degrees. The researchers say they have no idea what goes on in the roach nervous system to produce these preferred routes. But they note that escape-route variability is not uncommon elsewhere in the animal world, so through further experimentation it might be possible to develop a general theory of how animals maintain a certain level of unpredictability. Copyright 2008 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Evolution
Link ID: 12231 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Tina Hesman Saey PHILADELPHIA — Women and men sometimes do things differently, right down to divvying up their genetic legacies. This divvying up is known as meiosis, a process that cuts the number of chromosomes in half during the production of eggs and sperm. Men do meiosis by the textbook, but women play it looser with the process, scientists from Washington State University and the University of Washington reported Nov. 12 in Philadelphia at the annual meeting of the American Society of Human Genetics. The finding could help explain why women sometimes pass along the wrong number of chromosomes to their children, the researchers suggest. “The male doesn’t contribute to chromosome abnormality in any way,” says Terry Hassold, a geneticist at Washington State University in Pullman who presented the findings. Some genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, are caused by having an extra copy of a chromosome. Humans normally have two copies of each chromosome, one inherited from mom and one from dad. About one in every 700 babies born has an extra copy of chromosome 21, a surplus that causes Down syndrome. About one in every 1,000 babies born may have an extra X or Y chromosome, and one in every 1,000 girls may have only one X chromosome. Abnormalities in the number of other chromosomes often lead to miscarriage or to death soon after birth. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2008

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 12230 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Stephani Nano -- The same kind of deep brain stimulation used to treat some patients for Parkinson's disease also helped a few people suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder, French scientists reported. Their study involved only 16 patients, but in four of them, symptoms nearly disappeared. However, many patients had serious side effects, including one case of bleeding in the brain. The treatment involved an experimental brain pacemaker, and it reduced repetitive thoughts and behaviors in some of the patients -- just as it blocks tremors for some Parkinson's sufferers. The researchers came up with the approach after noticing that two Parkinson's patients who got the treatment also saw an improvement to their obsessive-compulsive disorders. Other small studies have targeted a different part of the brain for that disorder and depression. In the French study, symptoms were reduced more than 25 percent, the researchers said. The results are "very encouraging," said the study's lead author, Dr. Luc Mallet of Pitie-Salpetriere Hospital in Paris. In an e-mail, he said the procedure should be used only in medical studies at the moment because of the possible side effects. The findings are reported in Thursday's New England Journal of Medicine. © 2008 Discovery Communications, LLC.

Keyword: OCD - Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Link ID: 12229 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Fergus Walsh Oxford University says the first animals have been moved into a new biomedical sciences centre in the city. The building will bring together animal research currently conducted at around half a dozen facilities in the city. Construction began five years ago but building work halted for more than a year when the contractors pulled out, citing intimidation from animal rights groups. The four storey Oxford animal lab is still surrounded by anonymous wooden hoardings topped with barbed wire. It is ringed with cameras and is a highly secure building. Inside, biosecurity is a key feature. Before getting to see the first animals I had to put on protective overalls, plastic shoe covers and a hairnet. This is mostly to protect the animals from any germs I might bring in. The first animals moved in were mice, which is perhaps appropriate given that rodents will make up 98% of the inhabitants. Eventually there will also be zebrafish, tadpoles, frogs and small numbers of guinea pigs, gerbils and hamsters. There will be no cats or dogs and no farm animals. BBC © MMVIII

Keyword: Animal Rights
Link ID: 12228 - Posted: 06.24.2010

What goes on inside the brain of a bully? Researchers from the University of Chicago used brain scan technology to find out. They wanted to learn whether the brain of an aggressive youth responds differently to violence than the brain of someone who is not a bully. In a chilling finding, the researchers found aggressive youths appear to enjoy inflicting pain on others. In the study, the researchers compared eight 16- to 18-year-old boys who were unusually aggressive to a control group of adolescent boys with no unusual signs of aggression. The aggressive boys had been given a diagnosis of aggressive conduct disorder and had been in trouble for starting fights, using a weapon and stealing from their victims. The youths were tested with functional magnetic resonance imaging to see how their brains reacted while watching video clips. The clips showed people in pain as a result of accidents — such as when a heavy bowl dropped on their hands. They also showed intentional acts, like stepping on another person’s foot. When the aggressive youths watched people intentionally inflicting pain on another, the scan showed a response in the part of the brain associated with reward and pleasure. The youths who were not aggressive didn’t show the same brain response. The study, published in the current issue of the journal Biological Psychology, suggests that the brain’s natural impulse for empathy may be disrupted in the brain of a bully, leading to increased aggression. Copyright 2008 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Aggression
Link ID: 12227 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Alan S. Brown Eight years ago, when Erik Ramsey was 16, a car accident triggered a brain stem stroke that left him paralyzed. Though fully conscious, Ramsey was completely paralyzed, essentially “locked in,” unable to move or talk. He could communicate only by moving his eyes up or down, thereby answering questions with a yes or a no. Ramsey’s doctors recommended sending him to a nursing facility. Instead his parents brought him home. In 2004 they met neurologist Philip R. Kennedy, chief scientist at Neural Signals in Duluth, Ga. He offered Ramsey the chance to take part in an unusual experiment. Surgeons would implant a high-tech device called a neural prosthesis into Ramsey’s brain, enabling him to communicate his thoughts to a computer that would translate them into spoken words. Today Ramsey sports a small metal electrode in his brain. Its thin wires penetrate a fraction of an inch into his motor cortex, the part of the brain that controls movement, including the motion of his vocal muscles. When Ramsey thinks of saying a sound, the implant captures the electrical firing of nearby neurons and transmits their impulses to a computer, which decodes them and produces the sounds. So far Ramsey can only say a few simple vowels, but Kennedy believes that he will recover his full range of speech by 2010. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Robotics; Stroke
Link ID: 12226 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Hal Arkowitz and Scott O. Lilienfeld “I was driving home after work,” David reported. “Things had been very stressful there lately. I was tense but looking forward to getting home and relaxing. And then, all of a sudden—boom! My heart started racing, and I felt like I couldn’t breathe. I was sweating and shaking. My thoughts were racing, and I was afraid that I was going crazy or having a heart attack. I pulled over and called my wife to take me to the emergency room.” David’s fears turned out to be unjustified. An emergency room doctor told David, a composite of several therapy patients seen by one of us (Arkowitz), that he was suffering from a panic attack. The current edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) defines a panic attack as an abrupt and discrete experience of intense fear or acute discomfort, accompanied by symptoms such as heart palpitations, shortness of breath, sweating, trembling, and worries about going crazy, losing control or dying. Most attacks occur without obvious provocation, making them even more terrifying. Some 8 to 10 percent of the population experiences an occasional attack, but only 5 percent develops panic disorder. Contrary to common misconception, these episodes aren’t merely rushes of anxiety that most of us experience from time to time. Instead patients who have had a panic attack typically describe it as the most frightening event they have ever undergone. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Emotions
Link ID: 12225 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Jennifer Viegas -- Birds may be bilingual, trilingual or better, suggest new findings that birds in the wild can learn the vocalizations of other species. The discovery not only proves that birds eavesdrop on what other birds are saying, but it also provides some of the strongest evidence to date that birds can learn "foreign" calls, as opposed to just confusing similar sounds with their own. While humans may learn a foreign language for work or pleasure, the skill can mean life or death for little songbirds that, according to the study, pay attention to the alarm calls sounded by other birds when a predator, such as a hawk, approaches. "It's tricky to know what goes on inside another species' head," lead author Robert Magrath told Discovery News. "At one extreme, perhaps they are labeling, such as 'flying hawk approaching at 10m!' or 'hawk flying by in the distance,' or 'predator on the ground,' etc." Magrath, an associate professor of botany and zoology at the Australian National University, added that the vocalizations could be prompted by anxiety too. "The best evidence is that both labeling and fear have a role," he said. Magrath and colleagues Benjamin Pitcher and Janet Gardner studied three Australian birds: superb fairy-wrens, white-browed scrubwrens, and New Holland honeyeaters. He prompted each to sound an alarm call using a gliding model sparrowhawk. This predatory bird has a taste for fairy-wrens and scrubwrens. © 2008 Discovery Communications, LLC

Keyword: Animal Communication; Language
Link ID: 12224 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Kelli Whitlock Burton When tangling over territories, some male fiddler crabs win by pretending to be stronger than they are, a new study reveals. The research adds to earlier findings that suggest animals use dishonesty more often than previously thought. Male fiddler crabs sport an enormous claw, which can regrow if lost during a fight over a home burrow. Although the replacement looks the same as the original, it is much weaker. The crabs notice the difference in their new claw, because it is lighter and does not pinch or pull as well. However, when faced with a challenger, they act as if nothing's wrong, displaying their feeble--but large--claws threateningly. The bluff usually works, according to a team of Australian ecologists who report their findings this week in Functional Ecology. The researchers collected Uca mjoebergi fiddler crabs in Darwin, Australia, and identified those with original claws and those with replacements. They measured closing force and pulling force--in territorial fights, invading crabs try to yank residents from their homes. The researchers then released the crabs near their original burrows and watched as other males challenged them. Homeless crabs with regenerated claws that were searching for a new burrow usually picked on crabs with smaller claws. Most of the time, the resident crabs gave up their burrow without a fight, falling for the bluff. "Male performance traits, such as claw strength and pull-resisting force, are really the key to success in male combat, so much so that the males will pretend to be good performers even if they are not," says lead author Simon Lailvaux, an evolutionary ecologist at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: Aggression; Animal Communication
Link ID: 12223 - Posted: 06.24.2010