By Victoria Stern Spinal cord injuries and disorders afflict millions worldwide, from disabled veterans to people with neurodegenerative disorders such as Lou Gehrig’s disease, yet there is currently no way to repair a damaged spine. Geneticists at the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle are hoping to change that by developing the first genetic encyclopedia of the spinal cord. The Allen Spinal Cord Atlas, which will be available online for free in early 2009, will map out which genes are active in which locations along the spine in mice, which share 90 percent of their genetic material with humans. Researchers are looking forward to using the new tool, based on the success of the Allen Institute’s 2006 Brain Atlas. That genetic map led to key insights, such as the link between glioblastoma, the deadliest type of brain tumor, and a gene called BEX1. Gregory Foltz of Swedish Medical Center in Seattle saw that BEX1 was turned off in the brains of his tumor patients, and using the Brain Atlas, he confirmed that the gene is usually active in healthy brains, as reported in Cancer Research in 2006. Foltz realized that when BEX1 is inhibited, cells grow uncontrollably and can form tumors—and researchers hope to develop treatments that target the malfunctioning gene. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 12122 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Jennifer Viegas -- It may not be such a dog-eat-dog world after all, at least among puppies. A new study has found that young male dogs playing with female pups will often let the females win, even if the males have a physical advantage. Male dogs sometimes place themselves in potentially disadvantageous positions that could make them more vulnerable to attack, and researchers suspect the opportunity to play may be more important to them than winning. Such self-handicapping has been documented before in red-necked wallabies, squirrel monkeys, hamadryas baboons and even humans, all of which frequently take on defensive positions when playing with youngsters, in particular. The gentlemanly dog behavior is even accompanied with a bow. "We found that self-handicapping tends to occur in conjunction with play bows," lead author Camille Ward told Discovery News. "A play bow is a signal that dogs use when they want to communicate playful intentions to a potential play partner," added Ward, a lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan and director of About Dogs LLC. She is also author of the forthcoming book, Relationship-Based Dog Training. Copyright © 2008 Discovery Communications, LLC.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 12121 - Posted: 06.24.2010

What's the worst that could happen after eating a slice of pepperoni pizza? A little heartburn, for most people. But for up to a million women in the U.S., enjoying that piece of pizza has painful consequences. They have a chronic bladder condition that causes pelvic pain. Spicy food -- as well as citrus, caffeine, tomatoes and alcohol-- can cause a flare in their symptoms and intensify the pain. It was thought that the spike in their symptoms was triggered when digesting the foods produced chemicals in the urine that irritated the bladder. However, researchers from Northwestern University's Feinberg School of Medicine believe the symptoms -- pain and an urgent need to frequently urinate -- are actually being provoked by a surprise perpetrator. Applying their recent animal study to humans, the scientists believe the colon, irritated by the spicy food, is to blame. Their idea opens up new treatment possibilities for "painful bladder syndrome," or interstitial cystitis, a condition that primarily affects women (only 10 percent of sufferers are men.) During a flare up, the pelvic pain is so intense some women administer anesthetic lidocaine directly into their bladders via a catheter to get relief. Patients typically also feel an urgent need to urinate up to 50 times a day and are afraid to leave their homes in case they can't find a bathroom. "This disease has a devastating effect on people's lives," said David Klumpp, principal investigator and assistant professor of urology at the Feinberg School. "It affects people's relationships with family and friends." Klumpp said some women who suffer from this become so depressed, they attempt suicide. Klumpp worked with Charles Rudick, a postdoctoral fellow at the Feinberg School, on the paper, which was published in the September issue of Nature Clinical Practice Urology.

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 12120 - Posted: 10.13.2008

Drop an egg in a frying pan and who doesn’t think “Your brain on drugs”? But in the 21 years since that image became an icon, science has tried to learn what really changes in an addicted brain. Animal studies have shown that tiny branches coming off of brain cells, called dendritic spines, are more abundant in addiction. These spines serve to create connections for increased communication across the gaps or synapses between brain cells. For years researchers believed that they were causing addictive behaviors. Now new research challenges that notion. “They may actually be a brain mechanism to compensate, to try to limit, the individual’s sensitivity to the sort of maladaptive changes that lead to very long-lasting aspects of addiction,” says Christopher Cowan, an addiction researcher at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center. For the last few years, Cowan has been studying the role of a certain family of proteins, collectively called MEF2, that are responsible for regulating the growth of dendritic spines as the brain develops over time. But Cowan also suspected that these proteins could perhaps be responsible for the growth of spines in addicted brains. Says Cowan, “I wanted to ask whether, in an adult organism, an adult animal, particularly and ultimately in humans, whether these… changes in synaptic connections that are controlled by MEF2, whether these could be involved in the process of drug addiction.”

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 12119 - Posted: 06.24.2010

The human intestine detects potential poisons passing into it - and may take action to reduce the harm they cause. US researchers have found a link between receptors in the gut which detect bitter foods and higher levels of a digestion-slowing hormone. The same hormone also reduces appetite - perhaps to stop us eating any more. The scientists, writing in the Journal of Clinical Investigation, say it means that sweeter-tasting medicines could be more effective. Humans, and other animals, have evolved to dislike bitter tastes, probably because many natural plant poisons carry these flavours. The researchers from the University of California at Irvine, led by Dr Timothy Osborne, are suggesting that when we do manage to eat something bitter, another defence mechanism may kick in. It has been established for some time that the same taste receptors which are found on the tongue, and help us differentiate between sweet and bitter flavours, are found in the gut. While the tongue-based receptors send a message to the brain, those in the gut are thought to trigger other chemical signals involved in digestion, although these have yet to be fully understood. The US team found that when the bitter taste receptors in the gut are activated, this leads to the production of a hormone called cholecystokinin. This is already known to not only slow up "motility", the rate at which food passes through the digestive system from the stomach, but also suppress appetite. (C)BBC

Keyword: Chemical Senses (Smell & Taste); Neurotoxins
Link ID: 12118 - Posted: 10.10.2008

Colin Barras More than a decade after the first reported cases of debilitating brain disease variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), the exact mode of infection remains controversial. Weird self-replicating proteins called prions are the prime suspect, but are yet to be found conclusively guilty. In an effort to solve the mystery biochemists have created the first complete synthetic prion and plan to discover if it can be as toxic as the real thing. The prion is the alter-ego of a protein that naturally exists in cells. But that harmless protein can undergo a Jekyll-and-Hyde transformation into a shape that clumps together into disease-causing plaques. Even worse, those prions convert any normal versions of the protein it meets into the malignant form. In 2005, Bruce Chesebro's team at the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, discovered that prions need a string of molecules that acts as an "anchor" to be toxic. Prions that usually cause the disease scrapie in sheep and goats proved unable to perform their usual toxic tricks in mice when stripped of their anchors (Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1110837). © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Prions
Link ID: 12117 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By JANE E. BRODY Maybe you haven’t heard anything about the shingles vaccine. Or maybe you have, but decided against getting it for any of a number of reasons like these: It is approved for people 60 and older, and you are 45. Your insurance does not cover it, and it costs $165 to $300. Before dismissing the vaccine entirely, you may want to consider Merritt Clapp-Smith’s recent encounter with shingles. Although at 39 she is much younger than the typical shingles patient, her experience with confusing symptoms and a twice-missed diagnosis occurs at all ages. This is her story: “My shingles case began with the periodic sensation that bugs were crawling in my hair. Three weeks later, I developed a headache that was one-sided but unlike a migraine. The pain was so bad I couldn’t go to work. That evening, I discovered a raised and very tender ridge on my scalp. “Unable to sleep and in terrible pain, I went to the local emergency room. The doctor there gave me an intravenous painkiller, tested me for meningitis or encephalitis, and concluded that I had a migraine and infected hair follicle. Copyright 2008 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 12116 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Robert Burton is the former chief of neurology at the University of California at San Francisco-Mt. Zion hospital. He recently wrote a book, On Being Certain, that explored the neuroscience behind the feeling of certainty, or why we are so convinced we’re right even when we’re wrong. He and Jonah Lehrer, the editor of Mind Matters, discussed the science of certainty. LEHRER: What first got you interested in studying the mental state of certainty? BURTON: A personal confession: I have always been puzzled by those who seem utterly confident in their knowledge. Perhaps this is a constitutional defect on my part, but I seldom have the sense of knowing unequivocally that I am right. Consequently I have looked upon those who ooze self-confidence and certainty with a combination of envy and suspicion. At a professional level, I have long wondered why so many physicians will recommend unproven, even risky therapies simply because they "know" that these treatments work. It is easy to be cynical and suspect the worst of motives, from greed to ignorance, but I have known many first-rate, highly concerned and seemingly well motivated physicians who, nevertheless, operate based upon gut feelings and personal beliefs even in the face of contrary scientific evidence. After years of rumination, it gradually dawned on me that there may be an underlying biological component to such behavior. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Emotions
Link ID: 12115 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Bruce Bower Four months after his December 2006 hand transplant, David Savage’s partial sense of touch in the new right hand activated the same brain area that would have controlled his original right hand 35 years earlier. The photo at left was taken shortly after the transplant, while the photo at right was taken one year after the procedure.Jewish Hospital, Kleinert Kutz, and University of Louisville David Savage probably never expected to look down and see someone else’s hand attached to his right arm. Neither did he anticipate using the strange appendage to illuminate how the brain works. But that’s precisely what the 56-year-old hand-transplant patient has done. Four months after his December 2006 transplant, Savage’s partial sense of touch in the new hand activated the same brain area that would have controlled his original right hand 35 years earlier, say neuroscientist Scott Frey of the University of Oregon in Eugene and colleagues. At the age of 19, a machine-press accident led to the amputation of Savage’s right hand. When Savage had both hands, part of his right brain responded to his left hand, and a corresponding part of his left brain responded to his right hand. After the amputation, that same part of his left brain would have been sensory-deprived and thus ready to adopt duties of adjacent sensory areas, such as those for the right arm and possibly his face. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2008

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 12114 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Tina Hesman Saey Making cells glow with a protein borrowed from jellyfish is one of the brightest ideas in chemistry. At least that is what the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences implied when it announced October 8 that the 2008 Nobel Prize in chemistry would be awarded to three scientists who were instrumental in discovering green fluorescent protein, commonly called GFP, and developing the protein as a powerful tool for basic biological research. Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien will equally share the $1.4 million prize. GFP can absorb light at one energy and emit light at another. The result is that the protein glows, and glows with a specific color, when exposed to a specific wavelength of light. This function differs from that of bioluminescent proteins, which can generate their own light. "There's no doubt that GFP has changed the way we do biology," says Jeff Lichtman, a neuroscientist at Harvard University. "There's a wide range of things that can be done with GFP that are just unthinkable without it." For instance, scientists can watch the movement of proteins within a cell or track the migration of cells throughout the body. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2008

Keyword: Miscellaneous
Link ID: 12113 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Steve Ayan Over the past 50 years Nobel laureate Eric R. Kandel has shaped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of memory through his studies of the primitive sea slug Aplysia [see “Eric Kandel: From Mind to Brain and Back Again,” by David Dobbs, Scientific American Mind; October/November 2007]. First a student of history and literature and later a psychiatrist, the Vienna-born Columbia University professor and Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator has emerged as one of the most prominent brain researchers of the century. Scientific American Mind: Do you see the humanities and natural sciences as separate realms, or can they be unified? Eric Kandel: I think they can—and the biology of the mind is one of ­several possible bridges between them. But unfortunately, today people from different academic backgrounds do not meet and talk to each other so much. This was once quite different. For example, in Vienna at the end of the 19th century, uncovering the unconscious was a project shared by scientists, artists and writers alike. People such as [writer and doctor] Arthur Schnitzler, [painters] Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele, and [artist, poet and playwright] Oskar Kokoschka exchanged their ideas with scientists and other intellectuals and scientists in literary circles. Mind: Do you regard Freud as a ­scientist? Kandel: His aim was clearly scientific, but his methods weren’t. Until 1894 Freud tried to develop a neurobiological view of the mental apparatus. But because of the limited knowledge of his time, he finally gave up on that idea. Although Freud kept on working in a fairly systematic way, his ideas lacked an empirical foundation. But to my mind, the problems with psychoanalysis arose with those who came later. Freud’s followers should have tried to verify at least some of Freud’s postulates using empirical methods. Instead they treated him as if he were a guru. Nevertheless, we have profited from Freudian ideas. For example, he bridged the gap between mental disease and mental health, seeing the same unconscious mechanisms at work in both. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Learning & Memory
Link ID: 12112 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By STEPHANIE SAUL The drug maker Pfizer earlier this decade manipulated the publication of scientific studies to bolster the use of its epilepsy drug Neurontin for other disorders, while suppressing research that did not support those uses, according to experts who reviewed thousands of company documents for plaintiffs in a lawsuit against the company. Pfizer’s tactics included delaying the publication of studies that had found no evidence the drug worked for some other disorders, “spinning” negative data to place it in a more positive light, and bundling negative findings with positive studies to neutralize the results, according to written reports by the experts, who analyzed the documents at the request of the plaintiffs’ lawyers. One of the experts who reviewed the documents, Dr. Kay Dickersin of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, concluded that the Pfizer documents spell out “a publication strategy meant to convince physicians of Neurontin’s effectiveness and misrepresent or suppress negative findings.” Pfizer issued a statement Tuesday denying that it had manipulated Neurontin data, saying “study results are reported by Pfizer in an objective, accurate, balanced and complete manner, with a discussion of the strengths and limitations of the study, and are reported regardless of the outcome of the study or the country in which the study was conducted.” Copyright 2008 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Epilepsy
Link ID: 12111 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Larry Greenemeier Over the past three decades, scientists have looked to molecular biology and genetics to shed light on the complex interactions between the eyes and brain that give humans the ability to see and make sense of our surroundings. According to Johns Hopkins University researchers, genes, proteins and photoreceptors in the eyes hold the key to new ways of preventing and treating of potentially blinding diseases such as diabetic retinopathy (damage to the blood vessels in the retina—the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye) and age-related macular degeneration (progressive damage to the central and most vital area of the retina, resulting in gradual loss of vision). The pair—neuroscientist King-Wai Yau and microbiologist Jeremy Nathans—were recently awarded a $1.36-million (1-million-euro) prize by Portugal's philanthropic Champalimaud Foundation to continue their research in this field. "For a long time, it wasn't clear the role that proteins played in the eye," says Yau, 59. The retina's receptors absorb light and trigger an electric signal that goes through the retina and on to the brain, providing it with the information needed for us to see images. Yau and his team are trying to determine the steps that take place between the absorption of light and the creation of that electric signal and how mutated or defective proteins may interfere with that process. Yau also studies hereditary blinding diseases that affect the eye's rod and cone photoreceptor cells: specifically, why some blind people who do not have functioning rods and cones can still sense light and remain synchronized to day–night cycles. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Vision
Link ID: 12110 - Posted: 06.24.2010

SOME people get their kicks from drugs and alcohol. Male birds might get equally high while wooing a mate, a euphoria they don't feel when singing solo. Neal Hessler and Ya-Chun Huang of the Riken Brain Science Institute in Saitama, Japan, found that when a male zebra finch sang directly to a potential mate, neurons were activated in a region of the brain called the ventral tegmental area, or VTA. Neurons in the equivalent human brain region are activated when people take drugs such as cocaine, which triggers the release of dopamine, the brain's "reward" chemical. In the finch's brain, the release of dopamine stimulated a nearby region that coordinates singing and learning in a positive feedback loop (PLoS ONE, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003281). In other words, singing triggered a feeling of reward, which made the finches sing more. "It's the clearest evidence so far that singing to a female is rewarding for male birds," says Hessler. This isn't surprising, he adds, since courtship is vital to reproduction in birds. The study suggests that male singing triggers a long-term change in neural communication in the VTA, which could perhaps be associated with feeling good, says Erich Jarvis, a bird neurologist at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Drug Abuse
Link ID: 12109 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Rachel Zelkowitz Female animals produce a variety of cues to let males know they're fertile and looking to mate. For example, research on humans has shown that women's faces and scents become even more attractive to men as levels of a chemical called luteinizing hormone rise in women, and their ovarian follicles prepare to release an egg. Female lap dancers even appear to earn higher tips when ovulating (ScienceNOW, 5 October). In certain animals, such as cows and elephants, the females moo, bellow, and grunt more during ovulation. But no one had looked for a link between ovulation and women's voices. Two researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, decided to examine the question by comparing voice recordings of women at different stages of the menstrual cycle. They enlisted 69 women between the ages of 18 and 39 who were not on birth control, and they used urine tests to analyze the woman's level of luteinizing hormone. The volunteers were recorded saying vowel sounds "eh-ee-ii-o-oo" and a sentence, "Hi, I am a student at UCLA" at the peak of ovulation and at the end of the reproductive cycle, just before the women began menstruating. The researchers then analyzed the two samples for differences in traits such as pitch, speech rate, and scratchiness, or sound quality. On average, the women's voices were about 5 hz higher in pitch at the peak of ovulation than before menstruation. That's a small difference, so the researchers also played the recordings to a group of 15 men and women to see if humans could detect the difference. The listeners could distinguish the higher one 55% of the time, slightly better than chance, the researchers report today in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biology Letters. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Language
Link ID: 12108 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By TARA PARKER-POPE Sleeping in a room with a fan lowers a baby’s risk of sudden infant death syndrome by 72 percent, a new study has found. The finding, published Monday in The Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, is the latest evidence to suggest that a baby’s sleep environment is a critical factor in the risk of SIDS, which is diagnosed when an infant’s sudden death cannot be explained by other factors. The study was not designed to identify why fans make a difference, but researchers said they thought that by circulating air, fans lowered the risk of “rebreathing” exhaled carbon dioxide. That risk has been suggested as a reason the rate of SIDS is higher when children sleep on their stomach, in a soft bed or without a pacifier. Since 1992 the rate of SIDS deaths has dropped by more than half, to about one death per 2,000 live births from 2.4 per 1,000. The decline is linked to a national “Back to Sleep” campaign that promotes putting babies on their back instead of their stomach, which has been shown to lower the risk of sudden death. The American Academy of Pediatrics also recommends that parents avoid soft bedding, allow babies to use a pacifier and avoid overheating a baby’s room. Despite the gains, SIDS continues to be the leading cause of death in babies under the age of 1, and researchers are looking for more measures to lower the risk. Copyright 2008 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Sleep; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 12107 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Andy Coghlan Brain scans show that coma patients most aware of their environment react to pain the same as healthy people. Researchers who did the scans in Belgium say it justifies giving pain relief to all patients in this "minimally conscious state" (MCS). "These findings might be objective evidence of a potential pain perception capacity in patients with MCS, which supports the idea that these patients need painkilling treatment," write Steven Laureys and his colleagues at the Coma Science Group of the Cyclotron Research Centre at the University of Liege in The Lancet Neurology. But they found much less evidence that "brain-dead" coma patients in a so called persistent vegetative state (PVS) react to pain. Laureys and his colleagues discovered after taking brain scans of patients and healthy volunteers as they received mild electric shocks. They performed the procedure on five MCS patients, 15 healthy controls and 15 "brain-dead" patients. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Pain & Touch; Attention
Link ID: 12106 - Posted: 06.24.2010

by Christopher Bergendorff Hot and delicious… chili peppers may scorch your tongue, but they’re hard to resist. But why are chilies hot in the first place? University of Washington biologist Josh Tewksbury says chili plants get hotter and hotter in response to invaders. Tewksbury says they do it "to defend themselves from, essentially, unwanted consumption, things they don’t want to eat them." Researchers have known for some time how chilies create the sensation of heat in the mouths of mammals that eat them, including us humans. As Tewksbury explains, the heat is actually a trick the chili pepper plays on our brain, using a chemical called “capsaicin.” “We’re essentially being fooled by this chemical into thinking we’re actually being damaged, so our brain goes ‘Oh my gosh, I’m being hurt, I’m being hurt like I’m touching a hot stove, quickly, do something!’ and you get this fight or flight response. That “fight or flight response” is basically a rush of endorphins flooding our bloodstream, which effectively kicks our body chemistry into high gear, preparing us for danger. It also creates the so-called “runner’s high” that athletes experience after strenuous exercise. This natural boost of energy is part of what attracts people who just can’t get enough of chili peppers, a food obsession which has inspired whole festivals devoted to this spicy plant. ©2008 ScienCentral

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 12105 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Amanda J. Barnier, Rochelle E. Cox and Greg Savage Hypnosis has long been considered a valuable technique for recreating and then studying puzzling psychological phenomena. A classic example of this approach uses a technique known as posthypnotic amnesia (PHA) to model memory disorders such as functional amnesia, which involves a sudden memory loss typically due to some sort of psychological trauma (rather than to brain damage or disease). Hypnotists produce PHA by suggesting to a hypnotized person that after hypnosis he will forget particular things until he receives a “cancellation,” such as “Now you can remember everything.” PHA typically only happens when it is specifically suggested and it is much more likely to occur in those with high levels of hypnotic ability, or “high hypnotizable” people. Now a new study shows that this hypnotic state actually influences brain activity associated with memory. High hypnotizable people with PHA typically show impaired explicit memory, or difficulty consciously recalling events or material targeted by the suggestion, and a dissociation between implicit and explicit memory, so that even though they can’t recall the forgotten information it continues to influence their behavior, thoughts and actions. The forgetting is reversible—when the suggestion is cancelled, their memories come flooding back. These last two features—the dissociation and reversibility—confirm that PHA is not the result of poor encoding of the memories or of normal forgetting, because the memories return as soon as PHA is cancelled. Rather, PHA reflects a temporary inability to retrieve information that is safely stored in memory. That makes it a useful tool for research. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Learning & Memory; Attention
Link ID: 12104 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Heidi Ledford A blood test that uses next-generation sequencing technology could one day replace more invasive methods as a prenatal test for Down's syndrome and other chromosomal disorders, researchers say. The test has only been tried in a small number of patients, and is years away from daily use in the clinic. But it is one of the first examples of using the recently developed methods for clinical diagnosis. "I suspect there will be many, many more in years to come," says bioengineer Stephen Quake of Stanford University in California, who led the study. The test relies on finding tiny amounts of fetal DNA that circulate through a mother's blood. Researchers have been avidly pursuing such methods because they could replace invasive procedures such as amniocentesis — in which a needle is inserted into the womb to sample the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus — or sampling the chorionic villus, a part of the placenta, as both procedures carry the risk of miscarriage. Circulating fetal DNA is sometimes used to determine the sex of the fetus and to test for certain sex-linked genetic diseases. But developing a test that could look for extra copies of chromosomes, as is the case in Down's syndrome, has proved more challenging. Fetal DNA accounts for only a small proportion of the 'naked' DNA — that not contained within a cell — in the mother's blood. Most lab techniques are not sensitive enough to detect changes in circulating fetal DNA because the signal is drowned out by the mother's DNA. © 2008 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Development of the Brain; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 12103 - Posted: 06.24.2010