CHICAGO - Defects in working memory — the brain's temporary storage bin — may explain why one child cannot read her history book and another gets lost in algebra, new research suggests. As many as 10 percent of school age children may suffer from poor working memory, British researchers said in a report last week, yet the problem remains rarely identified. "You can think of working memory as a pure measure of your child's potential," Dr. Tracey Alloway of Britain's Durham University said in a telephone interview. "Some psychologists consider working memory to be the new IQ because we find that working memory is the single most important predictor of learning," Alloway said. Many children with poor working memory are considered lazy or dim. But Alloway said with early identification and memory training, many of these underachievers can improve. Working memory allows people to hold and manipulate a few items in their minds, such as a telephone number. Alloway compares working memory to a box. Copyright 2008 Reuters.

Keyword: ADHD; Learning & Memory
Link ID: 11357 - Posted: 06.24.2010

If the safety hazards of talking on the phone while driving weren't bad enough, researchers have now shown that motor mouths also cost other commuters significant time, money and health risks from pollution exposure. In a study presented to the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, psychologist David Strayer and his colleagues at the University of Utah used driving simulators to approximate the experience of driving in various levels of traffic. The simulators, which are the same kind used to train police officers, create a realistic depiction of driving in city and highway environments. Using a computer connected to the simulator, researchers can measure a number of simulated variables, including crash risk, following distance, and even a driver's ability to stay in one lane. As Strayer explains, "what we have is a fairly sophisticated replication of what you'd see in a car, but we can take very good measures of how people are driving." In his past research, Strayer has used simulators like this to observe a number of different driving behaviors. But for this latest study, he was interested in one overarching question: does cell phone use while driving affect the flow of traffic? © ScienCentral, 2000-2008.

Keyword: Attention
Link ID: 11356 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Stephen L. Macknik The source of many of the world's woes might be tracked to a specific brain area responsible for identifying people that are not of our ilk. If so, a study on the neural bases of prejudice and its modulation (read abstract or download the pdf), by Jason Mitchell and Mahzarin R. Banaji, of Harvard University, and C Neil Macrae, at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, published in Neuron in May 2006, could be as important to the burgeoning field of social cognitive neuroscience as Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I have a dream" speech was to the American civil rights movement. How does the brain differentiate those who are similar to us from those who are different? Does it analyze differences in skin color, language, religion, height, eye color, foot size? Does it discriminate cat versus dog lovers, Pepsi versus Coke drinkers, Shiite versus Sunni, Crips versus Bloods? In a way, the brain does all this and more by simply distinguishing those who don't meet various definitions of who we are. Specifically, a forebrain area called the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) appears to predict the behavior of members of outgroups by employing prejudices about their presumed background -- assumptions we make, in other words, based on what groups their various traits and contexts seem to put them in or out of. In this sense, outsiders, or those in outgroups, include humans of dissimilar cultural or ethnic identities or any other perceived stereotyped dissimilarity from your own self-identified groups, as well as non-human agents such as cartoons and animals and even inanimate moving objects. We distinguish otherness by all sorts of indicators, from the seemingly obviously, like sex or race, to the more obviously cultural, such as whether a person is wearing, say, a Yankees cap, a Dodgers cap, or a tee-shirt that says Baseball Sucks. © 1995-2007 Scientific American Inc

Keyword: Emotions
Link ID: 11355 - Posted: 06.24.2010

A small striped fish is helping scientists understand what makes people susceptible to a common form of hearing loss, although, in this case, it's not the fish's ears that are of interest. In a study published in the Feb. 29 issue of the journal PLoS Genetics, researchers at the University of Washington have developed a research method that relies on a zebrafish's lateral line — the faint line running down each side of a fish that enables it to sense its surroundings — to quickly screen for genes and chemical compounds that protect against hearing loss from some medications. The study was funded in part by the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), one of the National Institutes of Health. "The fish's lateral line contains sensory cells that are functionally similar to those found in the inner ear, except these are on the surface of the fish's body, making them more easily accessible," said James F. Battey, Jr., M.D., Ph.D., director of the NIDCD. "This means that scientists can very efficiently analyze the sensory structures under different conditions to find out what is likely to cause damage to these structures and, conversely, what can protect them from damage." When people are exposed to some antibiotics and chemotherapy agents, the sensory structures in the inner ear, called hair cells, can be irreversibly damaged, resulting in hearing loss and balance problems. Such medications are called ototoxic. People vary widely in their susceptibility to these agents as well as to damage caused by other chemical agents, loud sounds and aging.

Keyword: Hearing; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 11354 - Posted: 06.24.2010

After seeing 27-year-old Amanda Baggs, featured in this month’s Wired magazine, you may rethink your views of the so-called “normal” world. Ms. Baggs, who lives in Burlington, Vt., is autistic and doesn’t speak. But she has become an Internet sensation as a result of an unusual video she created called “In My Language.'’ For the first three minutes of the video, she rocks, flaps her hands, waves a piece of paper, buries her face in a book and runs her fingers repeatedly across a computer keyboard, all while humming a haunting two-note tune. Then, the words “A Translation” appear on the screen. Although Ms. Baggs doesn’t speak, she types 120 words a minute. Using a synthesized voice generated by a software application, Ms. Baggs types out what is going on inside her head. The movement, the noise, the repetitive behaviors are all part of Ms. Baggs’ own “native” language, she says via her computerized voice. It’s a language that allows her to have a “constant conversation” with her surroundings. My language is not about designing words or even visual symbols for people to interpret. It is about being in a constant conversation with every aspect of my environment, reacting physically to all parts of my surroundings. Far from being purposeless, the way that I move is an ongoing response to what is around me….The way I naturally think and respond to things looks and feels so different from standard concepts or even visualization that some people do not consider it thought at all. But it is a way of thinking in its own right. Copyright 2007 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Autism; Language
Link ID: 11353 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Sarah E. Richards Deep brain stimulation might help severely depressed patients Doctors long have struggled over what to do with severely depressed patients who don't respond to treatment. Give them more medications that haven't worked so far? Recommend more talk therapy or another round of shock treatment? Here's a new idea: open up a depressed head, find the brain parts that aren't working, and fix them with electricity. It's not all that far-fetched. Earlier this month, the Food and Drug Administration gave a medical device manufacturer the green light to recruit patients for a large-scale clinical trial of an electrode implanted deep inside the brain to alleviate severe depression. As invasive and Frankenstein-ish as it may seem, deep brain stimulation, as the method is called, may offer real hope for the 20 percent of depressed Americans whom Prozac can't help. Anti-depressant drugs carpet-bomb the entire body. Electroconvulsive therapy jolts the whole brain. Deep brain stimulation aims to pinpoint the malady. Neurosurgeons drill through a patient's skull, place the DBS electrode's eight contact points directly on the trouble spots and connect them to an electrical current from a pacemaker embedded in the chest. This allows doctors to rev up sluggish areas or calm overactive regions. 2008 Washington Post.Newsweek Interactive Co

Keyword: Depression
Link ID: 11352 - Posted: 02.29.2008

The brains of women who suffer from anorexia nervosa may actually respond to taste differently, according to research published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology. The report suggests that women with anorexia might not experience the rewards from eating that non-anorexics do. Psychiatrist Walter Kaye, who led the study, says the findings may explain how people with anorexia are able to starve themselves, sometimes to the point of death. "Food may not be as rewarding as it is to people without an eating disorder,” Kaye says. “And this may very well explain why they're able to not eat, and lose so much weight." He says the brains of anorexics may not be producing “a very robust signal driving eating behavior,” even when the body needs food. Karen Pearlman, a sports journalist who struggled with anorexia during her teenage years, recalls “not really caring about” she ate. “Just the least amount possible,” she says. One winter, Pearlman dropped from 120 to 85 pounds. In the spring, when warmer weather meant shorts and t-shirts, Pearlman’s parents saw how thin their daughter had become, and they took her to get help. Now 41 years old, Pearlman reports a full recovery, but she says it took time—she was still dealing with body image issues into her twenties. “It becomes so, like part of who you are. It’s very hard to let that go,” she explains. © ScienCentral, 2000-2008.

Keyword: Anorexia & Bulimia; Chemical Senses (Smell & Taste)
Link ID: 11351 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Anorexic from a young age, 31-year old Erin Kennedy still struggles to convince herself that her own body image is often distorted. "When I hear I'm healthy, to me that means I'm fat," she says. "But, you know, healthy is good. I have to remember healthy is good." Such self-monitoring is an essential part of Kennedy's challenging recovery process, but she says, "It's not always easy, and it's not something I always do." Kennedy has not been hospitalized for more than four years, the longest stretch of time she's been on her own since her first hospitalization in high school. In the hospital, Kennedy had to report to the nurse's station six times daily to drink Ensure. "People passing by wanted one, and I used to try to sneak it to them," she remembers. Even now, despite years of treatment, Kennedy says that anxiety about weight remains "a constant" in her life. Recovery from anorexia often takes years, and new brain scan research shows that even fully recovered anorexics are distinct from the general population in the way their brains process reward. According to a study published in the American Journal of Psychiatry, women who never had anorexia showed highs and lows in brain activity that corresponded with winning or losing. But former anorexics showed no difference in their brains' reward centers. "People with anorexia had a hard time distinguishing win or loss," says Walter Kaye, a psychiatrist and coauthor of the new study. © ScienCentral, 2000-2008.

Keyword: Anorexia & Bulimia
Link ID: 11350 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Devin Powell Even with the entire human genome in hand, scientists can still have trouble rooting out the genes behind a disease. Consider amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease. One ALS-related gene mutation was found in 1993, but it affects only 1% of all ALS patients. Now, after a long dry spell, researchers have finally hit on a second. It's just as rare as the first, but it seems to be more closely related to aspects of ALS pathology found in all patients. ALS typically appears in middle age, slowly destroying the motor neurons used to control muscles and usually killing a patient within 5 years of diagnosis. Five percent of all adult-onset ALS cases are known to have a strong genetic component, affecting multiple family members. But the rest seem to appear spontaneously in people with no prior family history. Scientists know little about what causes these sporadic cases. And the one known ALS gene in inherited ALS, called SOD1, doesn't seem to lead to neuronal death--the primary characteristic of ALS--so the link between this gene and the disease is still unclear. Christopher Shaw, a neurologist at King's College London, started hunting for other ALS genes by recruiting patients who have the inherited form of the disease but not the SOD1 mutation. While screening 154 people with familial ALS, Shaw and his colleagues found four individuals in one family who shared the same mutation: a single changed base on chromosome 1. The base was located in the TDPB gene, which encodes a protein called TDP-43 whose function isn't clear. In 2006, scientists reported that in both inherited and sporadic ALS, this protein disappears from the nucleus and clumps up in the cytoplasm of brain and motor neurons. © 2008 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: ALS-Lou Gehrig's Disease ; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 11349 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Priya Shetty A key part of the brain used by humans when communicating is also used by chimps, say scientists at one of the world's largest primate research centres. The discovery reveals that chimpanzee communication is far more complex than most scientists had thought, says Jared Taglialatela at the Yerkes National Primate Research Centre, Atlanta, Georgia, US. The new work is overturning the view that animal communication involves little more than simple emotional expressions – such as pleasure at being given food – rather than deliberate attempts at language. Taglialatela focused on a part of the human frontal lobe called Broca's area, which is known to be involved in language processing. It tends to be active, not only while we think about what we want to say and while we speak, but also while we listen to and understand what other people say. Taglialatela and colleagues non-invasively scanned the brains of three chimpanzees to determine which parts were active during communication tasks, such as gesturing and calling to a person for food that was out of their reach. The team discovered that during these tasks, the active region in chimpanzee brains corresponds to Broca's area in human brains. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd

Keyword: Language; Evolution
Link ID: 11348 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Neurofeedback may help improve brain connectivity problems that afflict autistic patients, allowing them to become more functional, a new study suggests. Neurofeedback is a way of changing the brain's functioning through feedback about brain wave activity. It can help regulate the transmission of messages in different parts of the brain. Autistic patients have abnormal neural connectivity pathways, with areas of very high connectivity and areas of very poor connectivity, according to the study. These have been identified through neuroimaging, such as MRI and positron emission tomography, which show that certain areas of the brain "converse" too much while others fail to make very many connections at all. In addition to connectivity issues, children with autism often also have a significant reduction in total grey matter volume in the brain and less white matter in areas like the cerebellum. These brain changes mean many have problems with eye gaze, speech, facial expressions or social gestures. Following a determination of an autistic child's connectivity problems, researchers performed neurofeedback experiments. They attached electrodes at various sites to redirect electrical signals in the brain. This treatment led to a 40 per cent decrease in autistic symptoms, an improvement in neuropsychological functions and a reduction in hyperconnectivity. © CBC 2008

Keyword: Autism
Link ID: 11347 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Jeanna Bryner Like a finely tuned harp, the whiskers on a rat's snout pick up particular frequencies and send these teensy signals to the brain. Now scientists have caught the whisker signals on video. With poor eyesight, rats must rely on their whiskers to navigate dark, dismal sewers and other underground haunts. Past research has shown that like harp strings, the shorter whiskers positioned at the front of rats' snouts are tuned to vibrate at higher frequencies and the longer ones at lower frequencies. These signals get sent to rodents' brains, where a large portion of their brain cells are devoted to decoding incoming whisker signals, making rats the super-sensors of the slum world. "They can sense the tiniest speck on a wall with their whiskers," said Christopher Moore of the McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT. Past studies have relied on plucked whiskers or anesthetized rats. The new study, detailed in the Feb. 28 issue of the journal Neuron, relies on high-speed video of whiskers on lively rats and associated computer analysis. The results reveal the first glimpse of the so-called micromotions that each whisker transmits to the rat's brain. "We knew from watching rats' behavior that there must be whisker micromotions that were too rapid to measure using available recording techniques," said lead researcher Jason Ritt, a postdoctoral scientist in Moore's lab at MIT. © 2008 LiveScience.com.

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 11346 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Charles Barber I am thinking of the Medicated Americans, those 11 percent of women and 5 percent of men who are taking antidepressants. It is Sunday night. The Medicated American—let’s call her Julie, and let’s place her in Winterset, Iowa—is getting ready for bed. Monday morning and its attendant pressures—the rush to get out of the house, the long commute, the bustle of the office—loom. She opens the cabinet of the bathroom vanity, removes a medicine bottle and taps a pill into her palm. She fills a glass of water, places the colorful pill in her mouth and swallows. The little pill could be any one of 30 available drugs used as antidepressants—such as Prozac or Zoloft or Paxil or Celexa or Lexapro or Luvox or Buspar or Nardil or Elavil or Sinequan or Pamelor or Serzone or Desyrel or Norpramin or Tofranil or Adapin or Vivactil or Ludiomil or Endep or Parnate or Remeron. The pill makes a slight flutter as it passes down her throat. Julie examines her face in the mirror and sighs. She hopes that by some Monday morning in the future—if not tomorrow morning, then some mythical, brilliant and shimmering Monday morning a month from now, or two months from now, or three—the pills will have worked some kind of inexorable magic. Corrected a chemical imbalance, or something, as the Zoloft commercial had said. “Zoloft, a prescription medicine, can help. It works to correct chemical imbalances in the brain,” the voiceover on the ad had intoned. Julie didn’t know she had a chemical imbalance, nor does she actually know what one is, and it had never really occurred to her that she could have a mental illness (could she?). But she does hope, fervently, that her life will become a little easier, a little less stressed—soon. She hopes, desperately, that the pills will make her feel better—that the little white powder hidden in the green capsule will dissolve in her stomach, enter her bloodstream, travel to her brain and do something. Brushing her teeth, she hopes that one day she will simply feel better. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Depression
Link ID: 11345 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Geoff Brumfiel A rash of vandalism, intimidation and arson across continental Europe in 2008 is evidence of a worrying new wave of animal-rights extremism being exported from Britain, experts say. In early January, threats led to a Dutch developer withdrawing from a new, €60 million (about US$89 million) biomedical research park in Venray, the Netherlands. A month later, Hasselt University's Biomedical Research Institute in Diepenbeek, Belgium, was set on fire. And in Barcelona in Spain, vandals targeted the offices of biomedical-research firm Novartis. The pattern “is quite clear-cut”, according to Simon Festing, director of the Research Defence Society, a London-based group representing medical researchers. Festing says that he believes new, more stringent enforcement in the United Kingdom has led many extremists to move their activities overseas. “Activists are not finding it easy here,” he says. “So they're just going across to Europe.” Over the past year, the United Kingdom has cracked down on animal-rights activists who break the law. Last May, police carried out Operation Achilles that led to charges against 16 activists. A trial involving several of them is expected to begin later this year. © 2008 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Animal Rights
Link ID: 11344 - Posted: 06.24.2010

LONDON - The parental bond may be all in the mind, according to a study published on Wednesday that pinpoints a possible region of the brain key to an instinctive desire to care for and nurture infants. This discovery helps answer the evolutionary question of why we view babies as special and could help doctors better identify people suffering from postnatal depression, the researchers at the University of Oxford said in the journal PLoS One. “It is important because there has to be a reason why we look after our kids in general to make sure our species survives,” said Morten Kringelbach, a neuroscientist, who co-led the study. “This is an idea that goes back to Darwin.” Kringelbach and his colleague Alan Stein showed how a region of the brain called the medial orbitofrontal cortex lights up to faces of infants but not to adults. Scientists believe this area — located just above the eyeballs and connected to the area important for recognizing faces — is key to controlling emotions, Kringelbach said. To do this, they used imaging scans to measure brain activity in volunteers asked to hit a button when a cross on a screen in front of them changed color. In between, images of unfamiliar infant and adult faces flashed on the screen. Copyright 2008 Reuters.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 11343 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Jon Carroll My recent column about naming and marketing placebos (something I plan to do any day now, as soon as I get this global warming thing under control) brought a host of reactions, links and coincidental comments. First, as to marketing: Hanna Szoke approved of one of my proposed names, Obecalp, and added: "I would specify that Obecalp should NOT be taken by pregnant women or nursing mothers. Also, of course, it should be kept out of reach of children." Absolutely, because, if nursing mothers can take it, it isn't really a drug. As to mechanism: There is lots of resistance to the idea that the placebo effect is real, even though there's no scientific doubt. Or, some people say, it may be real for other people, but not for me. A recent Public Editor column in the New York Times discussed the controversy that erupted in its pages about fibromyalgia. Is it a real disease? What do we mean by "real"? For that matter, what do we mean by "disease"? It may be - I have no opinion on this matter - that fibromyalgia has no physical cause. But that doesn't mean it isn't real. Public Editor Clark Hoyt wrote that, to sufferers from fibromyalgia, "any suggestion of a controversy is, to them, a suggestion that their suffering is all in their heads." But your head is a part of your body, and it is not a second-class citizen. © 2008 Hearst Communications Inc.

Keyword: Pain & Touch
Link ID: 11342 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Donald Mutti, a professor at Ohio State University's College of Optometry, eyes an answer to this query. Our pupils naturally dilate in darkness and constrict in bright lights through the actions of two opposing muscles in the iris, the iris dilator and sphincter. It is these iris muscles that actually do the work; the pupil is just a hole in the iris, which is the "curtain" of the eye that contains our eye color and controls the amount of light traveling toward the retina. The dilator muscle is arranged in a radial pattern. Its contraction pulls the iris outward, bunching it up like a curtain drawn open. The iris sphincter is arranged in a circular pattern, similar to a purse string. Its constriction pulls the iris inward and pulls it flat, like a curtain drawn closed. These iris muscles are under the control of the autonomic nervous system, which deals with involuntary reflex actions. Sympathetic output, which is associated with arousal, stimulates the dilator muscle to constrict, opening our pupils during a "fight or flight" situation. Parasympathetic output, more closely associated with calming mechanisms, stimulates the iris sphincter to constrict, shrinking our pupils. Dilating drops work by blocking parasympathetic receptors in the iris sphincter, allowing the iris dilator to act unopposed and enlarge the pupil. (The pupil dilates mostly because it can't constrict.) This parasympathetic input also controls accommodation, or changing focus of the eye for near objects. Dilating drops block that input too, making near objects appear blurry when the drops are active. © 1996-2008 Scientific American Inc.

Keyword: Vision
Link ID: 11341 - Posted: 06.24.2010

A brain circuit that underlies feelings of stress and anxiety shows promise as a new therapeutic target for alcoholism, according to new studies by researchers at the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). In preclinical and clinical studies currently reported online in Science Express (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/rapidpdf/1153813.pdf), NIAAA Clinical Director Markus Heilig, M.D., Ph.D., and colleagues from the NIH, Lilly Research Laboratories, and University College in London found that a brain molecule known as the neurokinin 1 receptor, or NK1R, appears to be a central actor in stress-related drinking. The researchers first demonstrated that NK1R plays an integral role in alcohol consumption in animals. Mice that were genetically engineered to lack NK1 receptors consumed much less alcohol than did normal mice with fully functional NK1R. Subsequently, in a small clinical study, the researchers showed that an experimental compound designed to block NK1 receptors reduced alcohol craving and improved overall wellbeing among recently detoxified alcohol-dependent individuals who had high levels of anxiety. Using functional brain imaging, the researchers also showed that the exaggerated sensitivity to negative stimuli seen in alcoholics was dampened with the medication, while the lack of responses to pleasurable stimuli was restored. Relapse to uncontrolled drinking after periods of sobriety is a defining characteristic of alcoholism and is often triggered by stress.

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 11340 - Posted: 02.27.2008

Matt Kaplan Women beware: instinctive preferences might up the odds of getting pregnant when cheating on a partner. In a study looking at the ever-interesting (and ever-mysterious) question of why women are attracted to certain men, researchers found that sexual interest shifts with a partnered woman’s menstrual cycle. When fertile, women in relationships are most attracted to single men; when infertile their attraction shifts to coupled men1. The reason, the researchers suggest, is that coupled women who are thinking of having an affair (even when asked to think about it by researchers) subconsciously select a man who is more likely to be a willing partner when they are fertile. Courting a coupled man may be both a waste of time — as he is less likely to participate in an affair — and hazardous, as there is a greater chance of getting caught. “Ancestral women who felt more attracted to a single man than to an already coupled one would have been more likely than others to succeed and transmit this preference to their daughters,” says Paola Bressan of the University of Padua in Italy. “These subconscious preferences are apparently still with us.” As for why women in relationships prefer coupled men during their non-fertile stage, Bressan thinks that the women are instinctively assessing these men as potential replacement partners. © 2008 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Evolution
Link ID: 11339 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Teens with difficult-to-treat depression [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/depression/depression-in-children-and-adolescents.shtml] who do not respond to a first antidepressant medication are more likely to get well if they switch to another antidepressant medication and add psychotherapy rather than just switching to another antidepressant, according to a large, multi-site trial funded by the National Institutes of Health's National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The results of the Treatment of SSRI-resistant Depression in Adolescents (TORDIA) trial were published February 27, 2008, in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). "The findings should be encouraging for families with a teen who has been struggling with depression for some time," said lead researcher David Brent, M.D., of the University of Pittsburgh. "Even if a first attempt at treatment is unsuccessful, persistence will pay off. Being open to trying new evidence-based medications or treatment combinations is likely to result in improvement." Adolescents with treatment-resistant depression have unique needs, for which standard treatments do not always work. "About 40 percent of adolescents with depression do not adequately respond to a first treatment course with an antidepressant medication, and clinicians have no solid guidelines on how to choose subsequent treatments for these patients," said NIMH Director Thomas R. Insel, M.D. "The results from TORDIA bring us closer to personalizing treatment for teens who have chronic and difficult-to-treat depression."

Keyword: Depression; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 11338 - Posted: 02.27.2008